Updated on 2025/10/28

写真a

 
WANG, Yijen
 
Affiliation
Faculty of International Research and Education, School of International Liberal Studies
Job title
Assistant Professor(non-tenure-track)
Degree
PhD ( 2022.09 Waseda University )

Research Experience

  • 2025.04
    -
    Now

    Waseda University   School of International Liberal Studies   Assistant Professor

  • 2024.04
    -
    Now

    The University of Tokyo   College of Arts and Sciences   Adjunct Professor

  • 2022.09
    -
    2025.03

    Waseda University   School of International Liberal Studies   Assistant Professor

Education Background

  • 2018.04
    -
    2022.09

    Waseda University   Graduate School of International Culture and Communication Studies, Doctoral Program  

  • 2015.09
    -
    2017.09

    Waseda University   Graduate School of International Culture and Communication Studies, Master's Program  

Committee Memberships

  • 2024
    -
    Now

    Cambridge Elements in Technology in Second Language Education  Editor

  • 2022
    -
    Now

    International CALL Research Conference  Conference Chair

  • 2025.04
    -
    　

    Artificial Intelligence in Language Education Journal  Associate Editor

  • 　
    　
    　

    ELT Journal  Journal Reviewer

  • 　
    　
    　

    ET&S Journal  Reviewer

  • 　
    　
    　

    European Association of Computer Assisted Language Learning (EUROCALL)  Programme Committee Member

  • 　
    　
    　

    RELC Journal  Journal Reviewer

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    Australian Journal of Applied Linguistics  Editorial Board

  • 　
    　
    　

    The JALT CALL Journal  Journal Reviewer

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    Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal  Editorial Board

  • 　
    　
    　

    Technology in Language Teaching and Learning  Editor-in-Chief

  • 2025.10
    -
    Now

    International Conference on AI for Language Learning and Literacy (AI3L)  Executive Committee

  • 2025
    -
    Now

    Taylor & Francis  Routledge book reviewer

  • 2025
    -
    Now

    The International Applied Linguistics Research Conferences  Conference Chair

  • 2024.08
    -
    Now

    Professional Development Certificate, Castledown  Program Coordinator

  • 2022.09
    -
    Now

    Editorial Committee of the Transcommunication, School of International Liberal Studies, Waseda University

  • 2022.09
    -
    Now

    Editorial Committee of the Waseda Global Forum, School of International Liberal Studies, Waseda University

  • 2022.09
    -
    Now

    English Curriculum Committee, School of International Liberal Stuides, Waseda University

  • 2022.09
    -
    Now

    Study Abroad Committee, School of International Liberal Stuides, Waseda University

  • 2025
    -
    　

    Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching Journal  Guest Editor

  • 2025
    -
    　

    Computer Assisted Language Learning  Guest Editor

  • 　
    　
    　

    The Language Learning Journal  Journal Reviewer

  • 　
    　
    　

    Humanities and Social Sciences Communications  Journal Reviewer

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    International Journal of Applied Linguistics  Journal Reviewer

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    Digital Studies in Language and Literature  Journal Reviewer

  • 　
    　
    　

    International Journal of Information and Education Technology, Reviewer

  • 　
    　
    　

    Language Teaching for Young Learners  Journal Reviewer

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Research Areas

  • Educational technology / Foreign language education

Research Interests

  • Applied Linguistics

  • Social Justice

  • Educational Technology

  • Artificial Intelligence

  • Second/Foreign Language Education

  • Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)

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Awards

  • Top 10 Reviewers of the CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) Journal

    2021  

 

Papers

  • Exploring self-regulated learning within online informal language learning: a case study

    Yijen Wang

    COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING    2025.04  [Refereed]

    Authorship：Lead author, Corresponding author

    DOI

    Scopus

    2
    Citation
    (Scopus)

  • Training to use machine translation for vocabulary learning

    Yijen Wang, Glenn Stockwell

    Theory and Practice in Vocabulary Research in Digital Environments (Routledge Studies in Applied Linguistics)    2024.12  [Refereed]

    Authorship：Lead author, Corresponding author

    DOI

    Scopus

    2
    Citation
    (Scopus)

  • Cognitive and sociocultural dynamics of self-regulated use of machine translation and generative AI tools in academic EFL writing

    Yijen Wang

    SYSTEM   126   103505 - 103505  2024.11  [Refereed]

    Authorship：Corresponding author

    DOI

    Scopus

    7
    Citation
    (Scopus)

  • Expanding the learning ecology and autonomy of language learners with mobile technologies

    Glenn Stockwell, Yijen Wang

    EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY   27 ( 2 ) 60 - 69  2024.04  [Refereed]

    DOI

    Scopus

    7
    Citation
    (Scopus)

  • Social Justice and Technology in Second Language Education

    Yijen Wang, Glenn Stockwell

    IRANIAN JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE TEACHING RESEARCH   11 ( 3 ) 1 - 18  2023.12  [Refereed]

    Authorship：Lead author, Corresponding author

    DOI

  • Exploring the Challenges of Technology in Language Teaching in the Aftermath of the Pandemic

    Glenn Stockwell, Yijen Wang

    RELC JOURNAL   54 ( 2 ) 474 - 482  2023.08  [Refereed]

    DOI

    Scopus

    22
    Citation
    (Scopus)

  • In-service teachers’ perceptions of technology integration and practices in a Japanese university context

    Yijen Wang

    JALT CALL Journal   17 ( 1 ) 45 - 71  2021  [Refereed]

    Authorship：Corresponding author

    　View Summary

    To understand in-service language teachers’ intrinsic barriers to technology integration in higher education contexts, this in-depth study investigated four teachers teaching Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) at a private university in Japan. The researcher trained the four teachers with varied digital literacy how to create and utilise online materials in a dedicated Moodle site, and the teachers’ training processes, as well as actual classroom practices, were then observed. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected over three semesters, including: (1) a pilot survey before Moodle integration to access the teachers’ attitudes and expectation of educational technology use; (2) classroom observations to investigate how the participants use technology in their CFL classroom; (3) audio recordings and field notes collected in a workshop and interviews to explore reasons behind behaviours; and (4) access logs in Moodle to determine the participants’ engagement through online materials inside and outside the classroom. The findings’ implications in terms of teachers’ experiences, emotions, competences, beliefs, motivations, and sociocultural factors affecting their determinations of technology integration in CFL classrooms in a Japanese higher-education setting are presented. Future considerations and ongoing challenges are discussed to highlight the implications for research, policymakers, teacher educators, and stakeholders.

    DOI

    Scopus

    23
    Citation
    (Scopus)

  • Artificial intelligence and social change in language education

    The Routledge Handbook    2026  [Refereed]  [Invited]

  • Mobile Applications for Language Learning

       2026

    Authorship：Lead author, Corresponding author

  • The Cambridge Handbook of Technology in Language Teaching and Learning

    Yijen Wang

       2025.06

    　View Summary

    <jats:p>The use of technology in various language teaching and learning contexts has become increasingly commonplace in recent years. This has resulted in an enormous range of choices for teachers and researchers in the field, but at the same time, it has also become more and more difficult for those who are new to using technology for language teaching and researching to keep up with these changes. This handbook provides a wide-ranging, accessible overview of technology in language teaching and learning by leading experts in the field from around the world. The chapters are split into six thematic parts, covering a multitude of subject areas whilst also highlighting the relationships between the topics covered. Showcasing the diversity and complexity of the field in a comprehensive yet approachable manner, it is essential reading for academic researchers and graduate students, as well as pre-service and in-service teachers in various global contexts.</jats:p>

    DOI

  • Conclusion

    Glenn Stockwell, Yijen Wang

    The Cambridge Handbook of Technology in Language Teaching and Learning     511 - 520  2025.06

    DOI

  • Introduction

    Glenn Stockwell, Yijen Wang

    The Cambridge Handbook of Technology in Language Teaching and Learning     3 - 15  2025.06

    DOI

  • The Shifting Focus of CALL Research

    Yijen Wang

    The Cambridge Handbook of Technology in Language Teaching and Learning     58 - 72  2025.06

    DOI

  • Overcoming Teacher Resistance

    Yijen Wang

    The Cambridge Handbook of Technology in Language Teaching and Learning     348 - 360  2025.06

    DOI

  • Introduction

    Gilbert Dizon, Antonie Alm, Yijen Wang

    Insights into AI and Language Teaching and Learning    2025.04

    DOI

  • Research methods and AI

    Yijen Wang

    Insights into AI and Language Teaching and Learning    2025.04

    Authorship：Lead author, Corresponding author

    DOI

  • Insights into AI and Language Teaching and Learning

    Yijen Wang

       2025.04  [Refereed]

    Authorship：Lead author, Corresponding author

    DOI

  • AI-Driven Feedback and Reflection: Enhancing Students' Speaking Motivation and Confidence

    The 74th Annual Conference Proceedings of the Japanese Society for Chinese Linguistics     33 - 37  2024.11  [Refereed]

  • Proceedings of the International CALL Research Conference, 2024

    Yijen Wang

       2024.09  [Refereed]

    　View Summary

    <jats:p>The XXIst International CALL Research Smart Conference was hosted by Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan on July 8-10, 2022. The theme of the conference was Smart CALL, where “Smart” is defined as possessing three qualities: personalization, contextualization, and socialization. Personalization is the extent to which technologies and learning environments are adapted to the specific profile of the language learner. Contextualization is how technologies and learning environments can be adjusted to the specific context of the learner. Socialization is the way in which technologies and learning environments afford meaningful interaction amongst learners, co-learners, teachers and researchers.</jats:p>

    DOI

  • Motivation and autonomy

    Glenn Stockwell, Yijen Wang

    The Bloomsbury Handbook of Language Learning and Technology     144 - 156  2024.01  [Refereed]

  • Preface

    Hassan Mohebbi, Yijen Wang

       2023.04

    DOI

  • Technology and second language writing instruction

    Yijen Wang, Ali Panahi

    Insights into Teaching and Learning Writing     167 - 179  2023.04  [Refereed]  [Invited]

    Authorship：Lead author, Corresponding author

    　View Summary

    The integration of technology into L2 writing instruction has become increasingly prevalent in recent years. This chapter provides an overview of the various ways in which technology has been utilized in writing education and explores its impact on students' writing process. It highlights the potential benefits and concerns surrounding the use of technology in writing instruction. Given the growing interest in technology use, the chapter presents a theoretical framework for technology adoption in teaching writing skills, drawing upon relevant literature and studies. The chapter concludes by discussing the new challenges and implications that arise for early-career teachers, in-service teachers, researchers, and stakeholders who are considering using technology for writing instruction.

    DOI

  • Challenge or chance? Chinese teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices of educational technology at Japanese universities

    Yijen Wang

    Proceeding paper for the 71th Chinese Linguistic Society of Japan Conference     37 - 39  2021.11  [Refereed]

  • Engagement in PC-based, smartphone-based, and paper-based materials: Learning vocabulary through Chinese Stories

    Yijen Wang

    Technology in Language Teaching and Learning    2020.12  [Refereed]

    DOI

  • On the cultural capacity of a Chinese teacher: Take the qualification examination Chinese teachers in China and U.S. as an example

    Chen, L., Wang. Y., Huang, Y., Chen, W., Kan, Y.

    International Chinese Language Education     33 - 43  2012.12  [Refereed]

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Books and Other Publications

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Presentations

  • Assessing the Impact of Generative AI on Second Language Writing Proficiency

    The 58th BAAL Conference, The University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK 

    Event date：
    2025.09
    　
    　

  • Exploring the Impact of Generative AI Tools on Writing Development: A Longitudinal Study of EFL Learners

    EuroCALL, The Università Cattolica, Milan, Italy 

    Event date：
    2025.08
    　
    　

  • Effects of generative AI on English writing skill development

    Canadian Association of Applied Linguistics (ACLA) 

    Event date：
    2025.06
    　
    　

  • Examining the effects of writing with generative AI on the development of writing skills

    CALICO 2025, San Diego State University 

    Event date：
    2025.05
    　
    　

  • Empowering foreign language teachers: Enhancing social justice awareness through technology in education

    Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (ALAA) Conference 2024, The University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia 

    Event date：
    2024.11
    　
    　

  • Mastering the AI wave: Self-regulated use of generative AI tools

     [Invited]

    IICA for FITE Project Seminar. Lingnan University, Hong Kong 

    Presentation date： 2024.11

  • The Collaborative Feedback Teaching in the Era of Large Language Models

    The 74th of The Chinese Linguistic Society of Japan Conference, Kansai Gaidai University, Japan 

    Presentation date： 2024.11

  • Exploring the Emotional Impact of AI Tools on Chinese Language Educators

    The 15th International Conference of the Asia-Pacific Consortium of Teaching Chinese as an International Language (APC-TCIL15) , The University of Melbourne, Australia 

    Presentation date： 2024.10

  • An Exploratory Study of Language Teacher Emotions with AI, Waseda University

    The XXIInd International CALL Research Conference, Waseda University, Japan 

    Presentation date： 2024.09

  • Engaging with technological advances in language teaching and learning

    Event date：
    2024.09
    　
    　

  • Using AI tools in EFL writing classes

    EuroCALL, Trnava University, Trnava, Slovakia 

    Event date：
    2024.08
    　
    　

  • Integrating AI in EFL writing: Insights from Japanese classrooms

    GloCALL, Hanoi University of Industry, Hanoi, Vietnam 

    Event date：
    2024.08
    　
    　

  • AI in Language Education: Enhancing Teacher Well-being and Student Engagement

     [Invited]

    Faculty Seminar, School of International Liberal Studies, Waseda University 

    Presentation date： 2024.07

  • Facilitating EFL Writing Proficiency Through AI Tools: A Mixed-Methods Study

    International Conference on Technology-enhanced Language Learning and Teaching & Corpusbased Language Learning and Teaching 2024 (TeLLT & CoLLT 2024), The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 

    Event date：
    2024.07
    　
    　

  • An Exploratory Study of Chinese Language Teacher Anxiety and Well-being with AI Tools

    The 12th International Conference and Workshops on Technology and Chinese Language Teaching, The University of California 

    Event date：
    2024.06
    　
    　

  • Exploring AI tools for English learning: A case study of Google Translate, DeepL, and ChatGPT

    Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (ALAA) Conference 2023, University of Wollongong, Australia. 

    Presentation date： 2023.11

    Event date：
    2023.11
    -
    　

  • Exploring the gap between teachers’ and students’ usage of technology for informal language learning from an ecological perspective

    The 56th Annual Conference of the British Association for Applied Linguistics (BAAL), The University of York, UK 

    Event date：
    2023.08
    　
    　

  • Editors’ panel: How authors can engage with reviewer feedback

     [Invited]

    The EuroCALL 2023 Conference, University of Iceland, Reykjavík 

    Event date：
    2023.08
    　
    　

  • Learner training in AI tools for English learning: Exploring Deep-L and ChatGPT

    The EuroCALL 2023 Conference, University of Iceland, Reykjavík 

    Event date：
    2023.08
    　
    　

  • Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions of Learner Data and Learning Engagement

    The EUROCALL 2022 Conference, 

    Presentation date： 2022.08

  • Chinese language teaching designs and methods: University teachers’ and students’ expectations and current

    Sunaoka, W., Liu, S., Wang, R., Sugie, S., Wang, S., Wang, Y.

    The 71th Chinese Linguistic Society of Japan Conference 

    Presentation date： 2021.11

  • Factors affecting in-service teachers’ resistance to technology in a Japanese university context

    EUROCALL 2021 Conference 

    Presentation date： 2021.08

  • A mixed-methods investigation of teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of technology for CFL education at a Japanese university

    International Conference and Workshops on Technology and Chinese Language Teaching 

    Presentation date： 2021.05

    Event date：
    2021.05
    　
    　

  • Teachers’ change and resistance to using technology: A case study in a Japanese CFL context

    EUROCALL 2020 Conference 

    Presentation date： 2020.08

  • In-service teachers’ perceptions of educational technology integration: A case study in a Japanese university context

    The 21st International CALL Research Conference 

    Presentation date： 2020.07

  • Exploring roles and psychology of teachers with LMS: Developing and using online Chinese language learning materials

    The XXth International CALL Research Conference 

    Presentation date： 2019.07

  • CALL, MALL, or Paper? A Comparative Study of Task Engagement and Attitudes in Elementary CFL Japanese Learners

    Pan-Pacific TELL Conference 

    Presentation date： 2018.10

  • Learning L2 lexicon with CALL, MALL, and non-electronic platforms: A comparative study of task engagement and attitudes in elementary CFL Japanese learners

    GloCALL 2018 Conference 

    Presentation date： 2018.08

  • On the cultural capacity of a Chinese teacher: Take Chinese teacher’s qualification examination in U.S., China, and Taiwan for example

    The 3rd International Conference of Asia-Pacific Consortium on Teaching Chinese as an International Language 

    Presentation date： 2011.06

  • Chinese culture of project learning for multiple intelligences classrooms

    International Conference of Chinese Language Teaching in Asia Pacific 

    Presentation date： 2010.03

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Research Projects

  • Enhancing foreign language instructors' teaching skills using generative AI- the legacy and development of the hyflex course

    Japan Society for the Promotion of Science  Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research

    Project Year :

    2024.04
    -
    2027.03
     

  • Taiwanese Overseas Pioneers Grants (TOP Grants)

    Project Year :

    2024.11
    -
    2025.11
     

  • Utilizing ChatGPT to Enhance Speaking and Writing Skills in Chinese Language Learning

    Waseda University 

    Project Year :

    2025.04
    -
    2025.08
     

  • Exploring the Cognitive and Sociocultural Dynamics of AI-Aided EFL Writing

    Grant for Special Research Projects, Waseda University 

    Project Year :

    2024.09
    -
    2025.04
     

  • Exploring affordances of machine translation for academic English learning

    Grant for Special Research Projects, Waseda University 

    Project Year :

    2023.09
    -
    2024.03
     

  • Training Japanese learners to use machine translation for academic English writing and reading

    Grant for Special Research Projects 

    Project Year :

    2023.04
    -
    2023.08
     

  • Using Moodle for Self-directed Learning: Teacher and Student Voice

    Grant for Special Research Projects 

    Project Year :

    2022.09
    -
    2023.03
     

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Syllabus

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Teaching Experience

  • Introduction to research methods in language learning

    Waseda University  

  • Second Language Teaching Methods

    Waseda University  

 

Internal Special Research Projects

  • Exploring the Cognitive and Sociocultural Dynamics of AI-Aided EFL Writing: A Mixed-Methods Study

    2024  

    　View Summary

    With emerging artificial intelligence (AI) technology, language education has become an increasingly dynamic field where traditional teaching methods intersect with rapidly evolving digital tools, transforming the way English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is taught and learned. This study examines the intersection of cognitive processes and sociocultural contexts in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, focusing on 79 learners enrolled in a compulsory EFL course at a Japanese university and their self-regulated use of AI tools like ChatGPT and Google Translate for writing tasks. Employing a mixed-methods approach, this study investigates learners' evolving perceptions and highlights the interplay between their cognitive engagement and sociocultural interactions within the classroom setting. Quantitative data from pre- and post-surveys reveal learners’ attitudes towards AI-assisted writing, while qualitative insights are drawn from their self-reported experiences. Findings indicate that while the students perceived that their writing outcomes have improved by using AI tools for editing, the role of instructors for providing proper guidance and training on the technology, as well as the collocative learning with peers cannot be replaced by the AI tools.&nbsp;

  • Training Japanese learners to use machine translation for academic English writing and reading

    2023  

    　View Summary

    AI tools have gradually taken on a greater role in foreign language learning in recent years. However, there is a lack of explicit dialogue between teachers and students on how to use online machine translation (MT) for language learning purposes, despite evidence of its use by students. Additionally, the emergence of ChatGPT, a new chat bot, has caused controversy in education as institutions consider banning its usage due to concerns about cheating. While research has identified areas where MT can be useful for second language (L2) writing, ChatGPT's potential remains largely unexplored. To address this, a study investigated the perspectives and practices of approximately seventy Japanese learners of English at a university in Japan on the use of Deep-L and ChatGPT for academic English writing, as well as the impact of targeted training in their use. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, including surveys, writing task analysis, and observation of learner strategies. The writing was analysed for content, structure, and lexical and syntactic complexity and accuracy. The results of the study indicate the shifts in learner attitudes and behaviour resulting from the training. The study sheds insights into raising awareness among language learners about the pedagogical uses and potential pitfalls of AI tools.&nbsp;

  • Exploring affordances of machine translation for academic English learning

    2023  

    　View Summary

    Artificial intelligence (AI) tools have quietly assumed a larger role in learning foreign languages over the past several years. As the quality of online machine translation (MT) has improved in recent years, how to use it for language learning purposes seems to be the “elephant in the classroom” (Loock, Lechauguette, &amp; Holt, 2022), with a lack of explicit dialogue between teachers and learners regarding if, when, and how it should be used. There is evidence that students use online MT tools as a part of their language learning repertoire, but many teachers are still hesitant to allow them to be used officially (Ducar &amp; Schocket, 2018; Lee, 2022). Similarly, an emerging new chat bot called ChatGPT was released in late 2022, causing an uproar in education with many institutions considering banning its usage over concerns that students may use it to cheat on exams and assignments. While research has started to identify areas where MT has the potential to be useful for L2 writing, particularly with lexical and syntactic aspects, as an emerging technology, the affordances of ChatGPT in L2 writing remain largely unexplored. It has the potential to encompass some elements associated with MT such as the ability to translate text on request, but it tends to do this at a more holistic level when compared to standard MT tools even including relevant citations and references according to designated formats. To raise language learners’ awareness of the pedagogical uses and potential pitfalls of AI tools, approximately seventy Japanese learners of English at a university in Japan were investigated for their current perspectives and practices with Deep-L and ChatGPT, as well as the impact of targeted training in their use. Strategies that focus on using these tools for planning, writing, and editing were provided. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, including: (1) learner attitude surveys; (2) analysis of writing tasks; and (3) observation of strategies used by learners. The processes and products of learners’ writing in English were analysed in terms of content, structure, and lexical and syntactic complexity and accuracy. The study seeks to explore the differences in attitudes towards academic English writing, MT, and ChatGPT, as well as examining both the writing processes and learners’ completed essays. Data collection is still ongoing, and preliminary results will be discussed in terms of the shifts in learner attitudes and behavior with Deep-L and ChatGPT as a result of the training.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;References&nbsp;Ducar, C., &amp; Schocket, D.H. (2018). Machine translation and the L2 classroom: Pedagogical solutions for making peace with Google translate. Foreign Language Annals, 51(4), 779–795. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12366&nbsp;Lee, S.-M. (2022). L2 learners’ strategies for using machine translation as a personalized writing assisting tool. In J. Colpaert, &amp; G. Stockwell (Eds.), Smart CALL: Personalization, Contextualization, &amp; Socialization (pp. 184–206). London: Castledown Publishers.&nbsp; https://doi.org/10.29140/9781914291012-9&nbsp;Loock, R., Lechauguette, S., &amp; Holt, B. (2022). Dealing with the “elephant in the classroom”: Developing language students’ machine translation literacy. Australian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 5(3), 118–134. https://doi.org/10.29140/ajal.v5n3.53si2&nbsp;

  • Using Moodle for Self-directed Learning: Teacher and Student Voice

    2022  

    　View Summary

    The current research project aims to understand how teachers and students perceive self-directed learning on Chinese language through Moodle. The potential functions of the Learning Management System (LMS) allow students to set goals, select strategies, and evaluate learning outcomes that further facilitate their autonomy. However, how language teachers and learners view the use of the learning methods may be different. Understanding teachers’ and learners’ perceptions toward self-directed learning methods in online language learning contexts may help improve the quality of online education. Thus, this mixed-method research investigated Chinese language teachers’&nbsp;and university students’ perception of self-directed learning on a dedicated Moodle site by conducting: 1) three open-ended surveys to understand the participants’ attitudes toward self-directed learning; 2) individual interviews with the participants to explore their beliefs, and 3) activity logs on Moodle to record their engagement. The affordance and implications of using Moodle to facilitate autonomy will be discussed in light of cognitive, emotional, and behavioural engagement.