This study reports on the development of the Young Women's Appearance-Related Negative Emotions Scale-State Version(YWANES-S) from the standpoint of cognitive-behavioral counseling. Three questionnaire surveys were conducted with female university students (n=165, 185, and 40). The YWANES-S was shown to be a 7-item unifactorial scale with high internal consistency. The scores on the YWANES-S were moderately associated with scales of trait body dissatisfaction, state self-esteem, and negative mood states. Construct validity was confirmed by individuals' differential reactivity to an appearance-related and a non-appearance-related imagery task. This study shows that the YWANES-S has substantial reliability and validity.

The present research investigated the characteristics of perfectionistic thoughts or self-statements of individuals who were dieting in order to develop a new scale, named the Perfectionistic Self-statements Inventory about Dieting (PSI-D). The reliability and validity of the PSI-D were also examined. In Study 1, a questionnaire consisting of 40 potential items generated from semi-structured interviews and an open-ended questionnaire survey was administered to 118 female university students who were on a strict diet. Factor analysis yielded four factors of the PSI-D: Persistence of High Standards, Self-Criticism about Failure, Respect for Striving, and Strict Self-Restraint. Sufficient internal consistency for the whole scale and each subscale was established. In Study 2, a test battery of the PSI-D and other scales was administered to two samples of female university students (n=148 and 140). The results demonstrated sufficient validity of the PSI-D. The authors discussed the usefulness of the PSI-D based on the results.

This study examined the characteristics of personal constructs of individuals with high social anxiety using the repertory grid technique (the Rep), an assessment tool based on George Kelly's personal construct theory. Eighteen university students with high social anxiety completed the Rep for social anxiety, developed by the authors to elucidate the features of personal constructs from the perspective of the interaction between the person and the environment. The results revealed the features of the elements and constructs characteristic of socially anxious individuals. The responses to the Rep of all respondents were classified into five major categories. Furthermore, there were a variety of personal constructs in individuals with high social anxiety. The Rep seems to provide greater understanding about the features of individuals suffering from high social anxiety than ordinary questionnaires.

This study examined the characteristics of personal constructs of individuals with high social anxiety using the repertory grid technique (the Rep), an assessment tool based on George Kelly's personal construct theory. Eighteen university students with high social anxiety completed the Rep for social anxiety, developed by the authors to elucidate the features of personal constructs from the perspective of the interaction between the person and the environment. The results revealed the features of the elements and constructs characteristic of socially anxious individuals. The responses to the Rep of all respondents were classified into five major categories. Furthermore, there were a variety of personal constructs in individuals with high social anxiety. The Rep seems to provide greater understanding about the features of individuals suffering from high social anxiety than ordinary questionnaires.

This study reports on the development of the Young Women's Appearance-Related Negative Emotions Scale-State Version(YWANES-S) from the standpoint of cognitive-behavioral counseling. Three questionnaire surveys were conducted with female university students (n=165, 185, and 40). The YWANES-S was shown to be a 7-item unifactorial scale with high internal consistency. The scores on the YWANES-S were moderately associated with scales of trait body dissatisfaction, state self-esteem, and negative mood states. Construct validity was confirmed by individuals' differential reactivity to an appearance-related and a non-appearance-related imagery task. This study shows that the YWANES-S has substantial reliability and validity.

Objectives : The present research examined causal mechanisms of body dissatisfaction, binge eating, and dieting behaviors in female university students from the standpoint of cognitive-behavioral counseling. In Study 1, a questionnaire survey was conducted with 258 female students. Results showed that Self-Evaluative Salience (SES) of appearance schemas and Safety Beliefs and Body Control (SBBC) of body checking cognitions influenced body dissatisfaction, binge eating, and dieting behaviors. Study 2 experimentally examined if SES and SBBC caused body dissatisfaction using 29 female students with the average or higher SES and SBBC scores as participants. They were assigned to an SES, SBBC, or non-activation (NA) condition. Results demonstrated a significant interaction of the condition and the period for negative appearance-related thoughts (ART; F(2,26)=6.55, p<.01). Bonferroni post hoc test revealed a significant increase in the negative ART for the SES and SBBC groups but not for the NA group (p<.01,p<.05, respectively). The effect sizes for the scales to measure dissatisfaction with one's face and entire body were substantial, though they were small. This research provides evidence that SES and SBBC are part of the causal factors of body dissatisfaction, binge eating, and dieting behaviors.

The present research developed a Japanese version of the Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised (ASI-R; Cash, Melnyk, & Hrabosky, 2004) and investigated the relationships among subordinate factors of appearance schemas and body checking cognitions. The results showed that the Japanese version of the ASI-R (JASI-R) consists of two factors: Self-Evaluative Salience (SES) and Motivational Salience (MS). The reliability and concurrent validity of the JASI-R were demonstrated. An analysis of gender differences revealed that women reported more self-evaluative and motivational investment in their appearance than men. The SES and MS factors had moderate to weak positive relationships with the subscales of body checking cognitions. The findings suggest that appearance schemas and body checking cognitions are relatively distinct concepts.

The purpose of this review was to propose the possibilities of understanding and cognitive-behavioral intervention for body dissatisfaction in healthy individuals. No agreement was reached on a definition of body dissatisfaction, and there were few intervention studies based on the research findings in the body dissatisfaction mechanism. In addition, little emphasis was placed on the maintenance and promotion of health and the prevention of distress or mental disorders in healthy individuals. In this review, the authors overviewed the literature inside and outside of Japan on the issues of the definition, the mechanism of the development and maintenance, and cognitive-behavioral intervention for body dissatisfaction, and proposed the future possibilities of understanding and cognitive-behavioral intervention for body dissatisfaction in healthy individuals. The findings suggest that a new intervention should focus on one's psychological investment in his or her physical appearance and that it is desirable to reduce negative emotions about one's appearance even though negative evaluations of his or her appearance remain unchanged. It is needed to develop an intervention that helps individuals accept the imperfections of their body while increasing their awareness of various aspects of their body and life.

The present research developed a Japanese version of the Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised (ASI-R; Cash, Melnyk, & Hrabosky, 2004) and investigated the relationships among subordinate factors of appearance schemas and body checking cognitions. The results showed that the Japanese version of the ASI-R (JASI-R) consists of two factors: Self-Evaluative Salience (SES) and Motivational Salience (MS). The reliability and concurrent validity of the JASI-R were demonstrated. An analysis of gender differences revealed that women reported more self-evaluative and motivational investment in their appearance than men. The SES and MS factors had moderate to weak positive relationships with the subscales of body checking cognitions. The findings suggest that appearance schemas and body checking cognitions are relatively distinct concepts.

Objectives : The present research examined causal mechanisms of body dissatisfaction, binge eating, and dieting behaviors in female university students from the standpoint of cognitive-behavioral counseling. In Study 1, a questionnaire survey was conducted with 258 female students. Results showed that Self-Evaluative Salience (SES) of appearance schemas and Safety Beliefs and Body Control (SBBC) of body checking cognitions influenced body dissatisfaction, binge eating, and dieting behaviors. Study 2 experimentally examined if SES and SBBC caused body dissatisfaction using 29 female students with the average or higher SES and SBBC scores as participants. They were assigned to an SES, SBBC, or non-activation (NA) condition. Results demonstrated a significant interaction of the condition and the period for negative appearance-related thoughts (ART; F(2,26)=6.55, p<.01). Bonferroni post hoc test revealed a significant increase in the negative ART for the SES and SBBC groups but not for the NA group (p<.01,p<.05, respectively). The effect sizes for the scales to measure dissatisfaction with one's face and entire body were substantial, though they were small. This research provides evidence that SES and SBBC are part of the causal factors of body dissatisfaction, binge eating, and dieting behaviors.

Background & Objectives: Teasdale and colleagues (e.g., Teasdale et al., 2002) refer to the process of experiencing negative thoughts and feelings within a decentered perspective as 'metacognitive awareness' and suggested it reduces the risk of a mild dysphoria escalating to major depression or a relapse. Moore et al. (1996) developed the Measure of Awareness and Coping in Autobiographical Memory to assess it, using a semi-structured interviewing method. The purpose of this study was to develop the Japanese Version of the Measure of Awareness in Autobiographical Memory (J-MAWARE) and to examine its reliability and validity. Method: 44 non-clinical college students with repetitively experiencing dysphoric mood were assessed by J-MAWARE we developed for this study and other related measures. Results: We confirmed satisfactory internal reliability and validity of the J-MAWARE. The interrater agreement was moderately satisfactory. Conclusion: It was confirmed that the J-MAWARE is a useful instrument to measure the cognitive process in which negative thoughts and feelings are experienced as they arise. These preliminary findings need to be confirmed in patients.

The present studies investigated the relation between subcategories of positive beliefs about depressive rumination (beliefs about the advantages of ruminating and the disadvantages of not ruminating) and depressive rumination. The authors conducted three questionnaire studies with undergraduate students. Based on factor analyses, the Reasons for Rumination Inventory (RRI) was developed. The RRI consisted of four factors concerning the advantages of ruminating (Insight into Oneself and Situations, Preparation for Future Catastrophes, Increase of Empathy, and Prevention and Decrease of Dysphoria), and of three factors concerning the disadvantages of not ruminating (Avoidance of Future Mistakes, Avoidance of Persistence and Exacerbation of Dysphoria, and Avoidance of Negative Influence on Personality and Situations). Correlations among the subscale scores on the RRI and measures of positive beliefs about worry showed moderate validity of the RRI. The test-retest correlations demonstrated adequate reliability of the RRI. Additionally, results of correlation analyses showed that the Insight into Oneself and Situations were related to depressive rumination. All factors of beliefs about the disadvantages of not ruminating were also related to depressive rumination. These results indicated that the intention of understanding oneself and one's situations, and intention of avoiding negative consequences without ruminating were associated with persistence of depressive rumination.

This study compared the influence of depressive rumination and negative rumination on depression. In a longitudinal study with a 4-week interval, undergraduates completed measures of depressive rumination, negative rumination, and depression at Time 1, and measures of depression and stressors during the study at Time 2. The results of multiple regression analysis showed that depressive rumination, but not negative rumination, predicted depression at Time 2, even after controlling both for depression at Time 1 and for stressors. These results indicate that depressive rumination is a useful concept for research and clinical practices involving depression.

Fixed-role therapy (FRT; Kelly, 1955) is a psychological intervention technique based on one of the constructivist theories, the personal construct theory (PCT). The purpose of this study was to develop an improved FRT to reflect the participant's own decision making process in choosing the role that he/she plays and to examine empirically the effect of the improved FRT for social anxiety. Participants were university students with a high social anxiety tendency; they were assigned to either an improved FRT group (n=11), a standard FRT group (n=10) or a control group (n=11) and were required to engage in the experiment for two weeks. Results indicated that both the improved FRT group and the standard FRT group, compared to the control group, significantly decreased social anxiety, and that the improved FRT group, compared to the standard FRT group, decreased social anxiety at a marginally significant level. Furthermore, results of the evaluation by repertory grid technique, an assessment tool based on PCT, showed that the improved FRT had more beneficial effects than the standard FRT. Therefore, this study suggested that the improved FRT was superior to the standard FRT for decreasing social anxiety.

This study aimed at examining the relationship between perfectionism cognition and dieting behavior and abnormal eating behavior observed in the eating disorder tendency in adolescent females. One hundred and eighty-three female undergraduate and graduate students of a BMI of 24 or lower, meaning a thin or normal figure, filled out the following questionnaires: 1) the Self-Oriented Perfectionism Scale; 2) the Multidimentional Perfectionism Cognitive Inventory (MPCI); 3) the Dieting Behavior Scale (DBS); 4) the Eating Attitude Test-26; and 5) the Overeating, a subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory. Results showed that the scores on all subscales of the MPCI, namely, Personal Standards (PS), Pursuit of Perfection (PP) and Concern over Mistakes (CM), were correlated with dieting behavior and abnormal eating behavior. Multiple regression analysis revealed that PP affected unhealthy dieting behavior, and that CM influenced abnormal eating behavior. The authors conducted cluster analysis on the DBS scores and found four clusters. The healthy dieting group and unhealthy dieting group scored higher on PS and PP than the average dieting group and no dieting group did. These results suggest that, to prevent eating disorder, it is useful to intervene different perfectionism cognitions considering the dieting pattern and degree of abnormal eating behavior.

The Experiences Questionnaire measures decentering, the state of observing thoughts and feelings as temporary events in the mind. This study developed the Japanese version of the Experiences Questionnaire (JEQ). The fit indices in confirmatory factor analysis (n=297) suggested an acceptable fit to a model consistent with the original. The correlations (n=411) between the J-EQ and the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire- II, the Affective Control Scale, the Ruminative Response Scale, and the Cognitive Control Scale showed adequate construct validity. Internal consistency (n=411) and test–retest correlations of factors (n=54) indicated good reliability of the J–EQ. The J–EQ can be used to examine the influence of decentering on psychopathology.

This study investigated the relationship between abandonment schema and borderline personality features from the standpoint of cognitive behavioral theory. In Studies 1 and 2, the authors developed the Abandonment Schema Questionnaire (ASQ) and examined its reliability and validity using a sample of 452 university students. Factor analysis of the ASQ yielded three factors: &ldquo;Persistent abandonment and loneliness,&rdquo; &ldquo;Obsession and identification with significant others,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Disappointment with affection from others.&rdquo; The results showed that the ASQ had adequate reliability and validity. In Study 3, the authors examined the relationship between abandonment schema and borderline personality features. A survey was conducted using a sample of 253 university students. Analysis of the results was consistent with a causal model indicating that abandonment schema affect BPD features of acting out via affective dysregulation. Future studies are needed to examine whether the ASQ is applicable to populations other than university students.

The present study was conducted to revise the Japanese version of the Depressive States Checklist (JDSC), and to evaluate the construct validity of the revised version. Undergraduate students participated in two questionnaire studies. In Study 1, items with sufficient face validity and factorial validity representing the self-devaluative view and affective components were selected for the revised version of the J-DSC (JDSC-R). In Study 2, each factor of the J-DSC-R showed adequate construct validity because the correlation coefficients among the factors of the J-DSC-R, depressive symptoms, and depressive rumination generally supported the hypothesis. The J-DSC-R can be used to contribute to the understanding of vulnerability to depression.

This study investigated beliefs leading to depressive rumination. Undergraduate students (N=155) completed the Positive Beliefs about Depressive Rumination Questionnaire (PBDRQ), the Positive Beliefs about Rumination Scale (PBRS), and a scale of depressive rumination. The PBRS scores were positively correlated with the scale of depressive rumination, but the "Improvement of Problem Solving Ability" and "Promotion of Emotional Regulation" scores of the PBDRQ were not. The results suggest that the beliefs that rumination facilitates understanding of themselves and situations, as measured on the PBRS, were most related to depressive rumination.

This study investigated the relationship between abandonment schema and borderline personality features from the standpoint of cognitive behavioral theory. In Studies 1 and 2, the authors developed the Abandonment Schema Questionnaire (ASQ) and examined its reliability and validity using a sample of 452 university students. Factor analysis of the ASQ yielded three factors: &ldquo;Persistent abandonment and loneliness,&rdquo; &ldquo;Obsession and identification with significant others,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Disappointment with affection from others.&rdquo; The results showed that the ASQ had adequate reliability and validity. In Study 3, the authors examined the relationship between abandonment schema and borderline personality features. A survey was conducted using a sample of 253 university students. Analysis of the results was consistent with a causal model indicating that abandonment schema affect BPD features of acting out via affective dysregulation. Future studies are needed to examine whether the ASQ is applicable to populations other than university students.

Worry is perseverative negative thinking about what may happen in the future. In this study, we examined the effects of cognitive behaviour intervention focused on metacognitive beliefs about worry, on alleviating worry in Japanese university students with high trait worry scores. Metacognitive be-liefs about worry refer to the beliefs that individuals have about their own worries, such as beliefs about the natures and functions of their own worries.<br>In study I, we administered cognitive-behavioural psychoeducation to high worriers, with a fo-cus on metacognitive beliefs about worry. As a result, individuals who received the psychoeducation (n=13) were less anxious than the placebo intervention group (n=10) at a worry-provoking task.<br>In study II, eighteen high worriers served as subjects. They were assigned to either a self-instructional training (SIT; n=9) group focusing on metacognition or a waiting list control (WLC; n=9) group. As a result, SIT produced a signi.cantly larger treatment effect on modifying negative metacognitive beliefs about worry. In addition SIT was superior to waiting-list control, in yielding improvements on worry related measures.<br>These results show that modi.cation of negative metacognitive beliefs about worry has the effect of alleviating trait worry. The theoretical and clinical implications of these results were discussed.

The Posttraumatic Cognition Inventory (PTCI; Foa et al., 1999) measures trauma-related negative thoughts and beliefs. Negative cognitions are positively correlated with the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress symptoms that can be shown in those who have experienced negative life events. The present article reports on the prevalence of negative life events in the lives of Japanese university students, and the development and validation of a Japanese version of the Posttraumatic Cognition Inventory (JPTCI) with students who have experienced negative life events. A survey conducted among 2,622 university students found that 53.5% had experienced such negative life events as natural disasters and transportation accidents. After the Posttraumatic Cognition Inventory was translated into Japanese and checked with back translation, it was mailed to those students who had reported experiencing any of the life events. This validation study revealed that the inventory was composed of the same 3 factors as reported by Foa et al.(1999), and in addition, it demonstrated good test-retest reliability and criterion-related validity. The Japanese version of the Posttraumatic Cognition Inventory is a useful measure that can be applied to students who have experienced negative life events.

The present study aimed at examining the mechanism of helplessness, by reconsidering contingency in learned helplessness theories. Study1 was to develop a perceived experience of contingency scale for junior high school students (PECS). A scale composed of two factors (contingent experiences non-contingent experiences) was developed, and the reliability and validity was demonstrated. Study2 compared scores on the PECS for students with school non-attendance and those without such a problem. No significant differences in the mean scores on each factor were found between the two groups. The result suggested that students without school non-attendance had lack of contingent experiences and much non-contingent experiences as much as students with such a problem. According to the result, the authors compared scores on the PECS for those with high helplessness and those with low helplessness behavior students in students who attend school. Significant differences in the mean scores on factorl were found between the two groups. The result suggested junior high school students' helplessness was caused by lack of contingent experiences rather than much non-contingent experiences.