One approach to verifying infants' preferences toward colors and shapes is to have them make selections on or rank the stimuli they prefer. Although this approach clarifies their preference tendencies, it does not sufficiently identify the degree to which they prefer each stimulus. Therefore, in this study, we used a rating scale to quantify infants' preference level and verify the impact that colors and shapes have on synthetic figures. The study involved the use of a 5-point rating scale on 60 children (aged 4 - 6 years) to measure their preference for 7 color stimuli, 6 shape stimuli, and 42 synthetic shapes. Results showed that color preference displayed more dominantly than shape preference in infants' preference toward synthetic shapes. Therefore, it was concluded that color preference determined the preference toward synthetic figures. Furthermore, results demonstrated the efficacy of quantifying the preference level of infants via rating scales.

We report the fabrication and evaluation of the Cu/Bi bilayer absorber with electrodeposition. We designed the Cu/Bi absorber to satisfy the requirements for scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM). The residual resistivity ratios of films of Cu and Bi with electrodeposition was and , respectively; these values are sufficient for the requirements of STEM. We found that the Cu/Bi bilayer absorber TES microcalorimeter experienced a pulse-shape variation and we considered that these variations were caused by the quality of the contact surface between the absorber and TES. In addition, we examined the structure of the absorber using focus ion beam analysis and STEM. The results suggest that an oxidation between the Cu and seed layer, in which the layer is an electrode for electrodeposition, yielded variations. Moreover, thermal simulation suggests that the thermal conduction between the absorber and TES caused variations. The results of this study will improve the process of Bi electrodeposition.

<p>The present paper suggests one of the approaches of cross modal studies by using the concept of color as a node for the perceptions of the senses. Color is consisting of physically stable structures of three dimensions, namely, hue, lightness and saturation. Thus color can be useful to classify other modalities, such as fragrances by their harmonious colors or to visualize the classification of fragrances by means of color. The data obtained from the experiments conducted were analyzed by factor analysis, and mainly two big factors were extracted; MILD and CLEAR. It indicated, to some extent, the harmony between a fragrance and a color based on the dimensions of fragrance impressions. The fMRI study also showed that the activation of OFC (orbitofrontal cortex) in harmonized combination indicated close relationship with the perception of rewarding stimuli.</p>

The purpose of this study is to show the differences in impression evaluation among different media stimuli for housing space. We conducted an impression evaluation experiment for a pamphlet, material samples, and real rooms for media stimulation using an SD method with 85 participants to extract similar and the dissimilar impression evaluations among the media stimuli. The results indicated that the evaluations for real rooms were more positive than those for a pamphlet or material samples as a whole; especially, for brightness and youthfulness among different forms of stimulation. The evaluation structure by factor analysis of a pamphlet and real rooms were almost same; however, those by material samples were different, suggesting that a pamphlet is useful to express a real room, but material samples assist in stimulation of the residential space.

The aim of the current study was to investigate personality traits associated with body shape. In a pilot study, 12 pairs of adjectives were selected. In the main study, 91 university students rated pictures of body shape using the semantic differential method. The results show that the normal figures were rated most positively. The very thin figure was least likely to be regarded as favorable or active. Overall, figures farther from normal were rated as less active and less favorable. Thin figures were rated as more reliable than large figures.

The purpose of this study is to show the differences in impression evaluation among different media stimuli for housing space. We conducted an impression evaluation experiment for a pamphlet, material samples, and real rooms for media stimulation using an SD method with 85 participants to extract similar and the dissimilar impression evaluations among the media stimuli. The results indicated that the evaluations for real rooms were more positive than those for a pamphlet or material samples as a whole; especially, for brightness and youthfulness among different forms of stimulation. The evaluation structure by factor analysis of a pamphlet and real rooms were almost same; however, those by material samples were different, suggesting that a pamphlet is useful to express a real room, but material samples assist in stimulation of the residential space.

The purpose of this study is to show the differences in impression evaluation among different media stimuli for housing space. We conducted an impression evaluation experiment for a pamphlet, material samples, and real rooms for media stimulation using an SD method with 85 participants to extract similar and the dissimilar impression evaluations among the media stimuli. The results indicated that the evaluations for real rooms were more positive than those for a pamphlet or material samples as a whole
especially, for brightness and youthfulness among different forms of stimulation. The evaluation structure by factor analysis of a pamphlet and real rooms were almost same
however, those by material samples were different, suggesting that a pamphlet is useful to express a real room, but material samples assist in stimulation of the residential space.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the correspondence between the pitch and the color of PCCS tone and, furthermore, to examine the relationship between music and color in the impression the music creates. In experiment 1. there were 16 music stimuli (two instruments × eight keys). The color stimuli consisted of 11 PCCS tones and the gray scale. Subjects estimated the impression of each stimulus using the SD method and selected colors to match the music stimuli. The results showed that the pitch of the music corresponded to the lightness of the color. In experiment 2. the music stimuli were extended over a wider range of pitches. The result of a factor analysis showed two factors, potency and activity; these were found to relate to both music and color. With regard to color, lightness corresponded to potency, and saturation corresponded to activity. Furthermore, the pitch of the music corresponded to potency. The impression of music changed relatively to the pitch. The conclusion of this study was that PCCS tone has the potential for being used as a connector for images of other modalities in a cross-modal study.

The aim of the current study was to investigate personality traits associated with body shape. In a pilot study, 12 pairs of adjectives were selected. In the main study, 91 university students rated pictures of body shape using the semantic differential method. The results show that the normal figures were rated most positively. The very thin figure was least likely to be regarded as favorable or active. Overall, figures farther from normal were rated as less active and less favorable. Thin figures were rated as more reliable than large figures.

Sharing and managing knowledge on human Kansei obtained in several study fields are of growing significance to providing product's values focused on customers. However, few sufficiently-advanced technologies that realize such knowledge sharing and management have been established. One typical approach is to clarify and systematize concepts as an ontology. In the current study, we developed an ontology to describe correspondence of affective meaning spaces analyzed by semantic differential method. First, we collect literatures reveal the affective meaning evaluated through the five senses and their inter-modality. Second, we described the concepts on the basis of an ontology of color emotions. Then, we demonstrated and evaluated the usefulness of the ontology in a design situation. As a result, we confirmed that the ontology will serve as a useful reference and be of assistance to designers.

The purpose of this research is to examine peculiarity of psychological effects of the virtual reality (VR) stimulus and to test the usefulness of VR, compared with psychological effects of different presentation methods. In this research, an interior space was created by VR using a large screen as the presentation media, and comparison stimuli were photographs and computer graphic (CG). We conducted psychological evaluations of viewers' responses to these three presentations and real room. Results revealed that photographs created a warm impression, and effectively conveyed the realness and quality of the room's elements; however it was not ideal for conveying the depth and presence of the room as a whole. CG provided blight and cold impressions, and it was the least effective at giving the sense of a real room in this research. It proved to be difficult to express the mood in comparison to the real room, although the VR evoked a pleasant mood, and effectively conveyed the reality, presence, and dimension of the room.

Classification of fragrances has not accepted widely, because the range of stimuli was very wide and words of evaluation were a little. This study picked up essential oils, and selected words from prior questionnaire. Purpose of this study was to classify fragrances by psychological method. This study consisted of 2 experiments, A and B. The same materials and procedures were used in both experiments. Subjects were asked to evaluate fragrances by SD(semantic differential) method. In experiment A, a total of 220 subjects were joined and 15 pair words were used. In experiment B, 75 subjects were joined and 18 pair words were used. Cluster analysis and Factor analysis were used for analyzing the data. As a result, in both experiments, 11 clusters and 3 factors were observed, and clusters of citrus fragrances were showed. The factor of "Pleasantness" was showed in the first factor. This factor was common both experiments.

The purpose of this study is to show the peculiarity of mood and impression evaluation in the VR system for the simulation of a residential environment using a large screen. We conducted a psychological evaluation for a virtual space and real room using the SD method and found that the VR space brought a pleasant mood, but the first experience of a virtual space caused a nervous condition. Moreover, it was difficult for them to acquire a fresh feeling as well as a sense of width and depth in a virtual space, in contrast to a real space. Furthermore, it was easier to express beauty, simplicity and youthfulness, but more difficult to express warmth and individuality in a virtual space.

The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological and psychological responses to color lights during cold water immersion test. Ten female subjects aged between 20 to 30 years were asked to immerse their left hand in 15℃ water for 3 minutes respectively under white, blue and red color light. The subjects' skin temperature, skin blood flow, blood pressure and electrocardiogram were continuously measured. At the meantime, psychological questionnaires were conducted, focusing on subjects' impression of the color lights, mood, thermesthesia, cold discomfort, and subjective feelings of temperature recovery during the test. The physiological results indicate that under blue color light, reduced skin temperature under cold water immersion recovered relatively faster compared to other color lights. Skin blood flow also recovered faster under blue color light. The psychological results show difference in the impression among 3 color lights in terms of "pleasant" and "warm and cool". Meanwhile, subjects' mood and thermesthesia were different to each color lights. Specifically, blue color light, evaluated as cool color was considered increasing the discomfort of cold, thus leading to emotional arousal. On the other hand, red color light, evaluated as warm color was considered decreasing the discomfort of cold. In this study, as the characteristic of blue color light, emotional arousal was estimated associated with skin sympathetic nerve inhibition. This study may suggest color lights affect mood, thermesthesia and thermoregulation through cognitive process.

This study aims to investigate matched and mismatched colors for fragrances using PCCS tones. Two experiments were performed. Experiment 1 related to impression evaluation for fragrances (120 fragrances were used) and followed the Semantic Differential method (SD method). Experiment 2 related to the selection of matched and mismatched colors for fragrances (11 tones and gray scale were used) and followed the SD method to evaluate impression for colors. Cluster analysis was used for the values of the SD method (color and fragrances), resulting in seven clusters. Factor analysis was used for values of the SD method (color and fragrances), resulting in three factors (CLEAR, MILD, and FEMININE). The tendency of matched and mismatched colors for fragrances was as follows: for the clear factor, fragrances of positive value were matched for vivid and bright tones and fragrances of negative value were matched for dull and dark tones.

This study aims to investigate matched and mismatched colors for fragrances using PCCS tones. Two experiments were performed. Experiment 1 related to impression evaluation for fragrances (120 fragrances were used) and followed the Semantic Differential method (SD method). Experiment 2 related to the selection of matched and mismatched colors for fragrances (11 tones and gray scale were used) and followed the SD method to evaluate impression for colors. Cluster analysis was used for the values of the SD method (color and fragrances), resulting in seven clusters. Factor analysis was used for values of the SD method (color and fragrances), resulting in three factors (CLEAR, MILD, and FEMININE). The tendency of matched and mismatched colors for fragrances was as follows: for the clear factor, fragrances of positive value were matched for vivid and bright tones and fragrances of negative value were matched for dull and dark tones.

The purpose of this research is to show the impression evaluation of the several patterns for interior color which are changed the color about door and floor and making interior evaluation map as a result. In addition, it shows that the effect of evaluation differs among ages. We conducted an impression evaluation experiment on 288 subjects using the SD method. Computer graphics of several interior color patterns were used for this purpose. According to cluster analysis based on these impression evaluation scores, 31 interior color patterns were classified into six clusters as follows: a pattern consisting of an all-white floor [floor white], a pattern having a brown color scheme or having the same brightness as that of a two-color scheme using brown [brown], a pattern that has the high brightness of a brown color scheme or one that has a combination of white and the low-brightness of brown [brown contrast], a pattern using a black color scheme [black], a pattern using a dark brown color scheme [dark brown], and a pattern that contains a unique color scheme [unique]. By analyzing these patterns, we obtained the following factors that affected impression of each interior color pattern: evaluation, light and brightness, and familiarity. The results of impression evaluation showed that the effect of evaluation varied more widely among different age groups compared with the other factors.

The purpose of this study was to create a harmonious color model with fragrance, depending on the similarity of impressions from the color and the fragrance. This study consisted of two experiments. Experiment 1, our objective was to extract dimensions in fragrance impressions and consider harmonious/disharmonious colors with each fragrance. One hundred subjects were asked to evaluate their impression of eight fragrances (by the Semantic Differencial method) and to select harmonious colors and disharmonious colors with each fragrance from color chart consisted of 18 colors. By factor analysis, MILD factor and CLEAR factor were extracted for the dimensions of fragrance impressions. Also, by multiple regression analysis, we could construct predictive formulas of harmonious/disharmonious color for fragrance. Experiment 2, we confirmed the predictive formulas in Experiment 1 reversibly. We asked 80 subjects to evaluate their impressions, degree of MILD and CLEAR, of 15 fragrances by the Visual Analog Scale. Subjects were also asked to select harmonious colors and disharmonious colors with each fragrance from 18-color chart. To calculate the predictive rates of selection of harmonious/disharmonious colors with each fragrance, we applied the MILD and CLEAR scores of 15 fragrances to the predictive formulas in Experiment 1. We also calculated the correlation coefficient between those predictive rates and the actual rates of selection of harmonious/disharmonious colors that we get in Experiment 2. As a result, we found that the predictive formulas were quite accurate in most cases, suggesting that it is possible to develop a harmonious color model for fragrance. (c) 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 37, 219-232, 2012; Published online in 19 July 2011 Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20678

The relationship between expressions of a class teacher on the class atmosphere was investigated. First, the frequency a teacher showing six basic expressions was assessed. Secondly, the atmosphere of the class was evaluated and factors that composed class atmosphere were subjected to factor analysis, which indicated that class atmosphere consisted of Unity, Friendly, and strict Factors. A model how expressions of a teacher affected the atmosphere of a class was developed using Covariance Structures Analysis (CSA). The results indicated that the expressions of a teacher had a significant effect on class atmosphere.

The purpose of this research is to show the impression evaluation of the several patterns for interior color which are changed the color about door and floor and making interior evaluation map as a result. In addition, it shows that the effect of evaluation differs among ages. We conducted an impression evaluation experiment on 288 subjects using the SD method. Computer graphics of several interior color patterns were used for this purpose. According to cluster analysis based on these impression evaluation scores, 31 interior color patterns were classified into six clusters as follows: a pattern consisting of an all-white floor [floor white], a pattern having a brown color scheme or having the same brightness as that of a two-color scheme using brown [brown], a pattern that has the high brightness of a brown color scheme or one that has a combination of white and the low-brightness of brown [brown contrast], a pattern using a black color scheme [black], a pattern using a dark brown color scheme [dark brown], and a pattern that contains a unique color scheme [unique]. By analyzing these patterns, we obtained the following factors that affected impression of each interior color pattern: evaluation, light and brightness, and familiarity. The results of impression evaluation showed that the effect of evaluation varied more widely among different age groups compared with the other factors.

Conventionally speaking, a "smile" is considered an expression that characterizes the emotion of "happiness." However, the word does not only refer to positive emotions such as happiness. It can also indicate negative emotions experienced in daily life (e.g., wry smile). This study categorizes expressions of five commonly used phrases with the word "smile" according to variation in expression and degree of positivity. As a result of a cluster analysis, χ²-test and ANOVA, three categories resulted: (1) somewhat negative smile with small variation, (2) smile with moderate variation and positivity, and (3) smile with large variation and positivity. In order to further study these characteristics, we analyzed the variations in individual facial expressions. The results showed that an increase in positivity was characterized by raised eyebrow ends, narrowing of the eyes, a wider mouth, and a smaller change in the corner of the mouth. Because variations in eyebrows and eyes are smaller than those in the mouth, there is a possibility that a smile is judged based on the change seen in the mouth. In order to analyze the psychological influence of the three types of smiles, personal impressions were also evaluated for each type of smile. We applied four factors that were extracted through factor analysis: favor ability, vitality, dominance, and femininity. The study revealed that the larger the variance, the higher the evaluation of vitality, dominance, and femininity, and the lower the evaluation of favor ability.

It is said that negative information has stronger impact than positive information on forming the first impression. In our research, we focused on the effect of the time axes of information. We assumed that if a person's past information is negative (i.e., unfaithful) and present information is positive (i.e., happily married), participants would form better impressions comparing to the opposite situation. In the main experiment, participants saw a person on a video and were asked to rate his impressions by semantic differential method. The parson's information were varied among 4 experimental conditions: The participants were given no information, only negative information, positive in past and negative at present, or negative in past and positive at present. As the result of analysis on the impression ratings, our prediction was supported on some items such as "sociable-unsociable."

This study was aimed at identifying the key factors that determine the Japanese people's perception of China based on the color combination of images displayed on the streets of Shanghai. First, we obtained 259 digital images of advertising hoardings and posters displayed outside grocery stores, buildings, etc., on the streets of Shanghai and analyzed the color combinations in these images. The obtained digital color information was directly subjected to cluster analysis and the paired comparison test to determine the color combinations that were considered representative of China. The semantic differential technique was then used to analyze the trends and meanings of the color combinations, and 4 factors were identified as associated with the Japanese people's perception of China: the color red, high brightness, high saturation, and high color contrast. Thus, we can consider that the color combination in the images displayed on the streets tend to influence the people's perception of a country.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the psychological effect of color and fragrance combinations. We think matched combination through their impressions as the clue to the study. One hundred subjects (40 male and 60 female) were randomly assigned five color panels and the matched fragrances/mismatched fragrances for each color. They were then asked to describe the impression (SD method) and effect on their mood (four-point scale). We chose pale pink, vivid green, vivid yellow, dark blue, and olive as color stimuli, and peppermint, vanilla, lemon, anise, and pepper as fragrances. The following two factors were obtained after performing a factor analysis for the impressions of each stimulus: <MILD> and <CLEAR>. We also get these factors as impressive dimensions of fragrances. And so, we have not observed the change of impressive structures by matching colors. In addition, the matching color-fragrance combinations cumulatively strengthened the impression. On the other hand, by a factor analysis for the mood of each stimulus, we found the change of the structure for fragrances by matching colors. And we observed the interaction on the mood effect between colors and fragrances.

In this study, we examined how individuals associate color with fragrance, based on the impression of a color and its effects on the mood of individuals. One hundred subjects (42 male and 58 female) were randomly assigned 18 colors (3 tones each from 5 hues and 3 achromatic colors). They were then asked to describe the impression (SD method) and effect of the colors on their mood. In addition, the subjects were asked to describe the degree of match (4 point scale) for each of the 8 fragrances (cinnamon, peppermint, vanilla, rosemary, lemon, anise, pepper, and rose) with the 18 colors. According to cluster analysis based on these scores (each of their impression and effect on the mood), 18 colors were classified into 5 clusters, PALE (pale pink, pale yellow etc), COOL (pale sky, vivid green etc), VIVID (vivid red, vivid yellow), DARK (dark red, olive), MONOTONE (dark blue, black). Authors examined the matched fragrances for each the cluster. Based on the results, we found the following associations between cluster and fragrance: vanilla for PALE, peppermint and rosemary for COOL, lemon for VIVID, cinnamon and rose for DARK, and anise and pepper for MONOTONE.

When we judge gender of the person from a face, not only the form of face, but also its complexion acts as a clue. The skin color affects the judgment along the stereotype of gender, as Yamada and Saito (2004) have already reported. A dark skin evokes judgment as a male, on the other hand, a fair one elicits that as a female. In this study, we focused variation of form pattern of a face, and examined linkage of the both factors to the gender judgment; the complexion and the form of face. As the results of four experiments, the stereotyped effect of complexion intensified, especially when the composition rate of male face and female face were balanced. But, when the form verged on male face or female face, such color-effects tended to disappear. Namely, the intensity of the effect depended on the facial form. We also found the effects of another factors: condition of observation and the kind of tasks. They can influence the association of the two factors mentioned above.

Based on the impression of a fragrance and its effects on the mood of individuals, we studied how individuals associate fragrance with color. One hundred subjects (42 male and 58 female) were randomly assigned eight fragrances (cinnamon, peppermint, vanilla, rosemary, lemon, anise, pepper, and rose) , and were requested to describe the impression (SD method) of fragrances and their effect on the mood. In addition, the subjects were asked to select, two sets of three colors each from color charts consisting of 18 colors (3 tones each from 5 hues and 3 achromatic colors) , such that one set matched a fragrance, and the other did not.The following three factors were obtained by factor analysis for the impression of each fragrance : <MILD>,<CLEAR>, and <DEEP>. The factors for the effect on mood were : <PLEASANT>,<GLOOMY>, and <SERIOUS>. Based on the results, we found the following associations between fragrance and color : red and purple for <MILD> fragrances (high factor score) , blue and green for <CLEAR> fragrances (high score). Moreover, for <DEEP> fragrances, bright color showed a low score, while dark color showed a high score.

In this study, we examined how individuals associate color with fragrance, based on the impression of a color and its effects on the mood of individuals. One hundred subjects (42 male and 58 female) were randomly assigned 18 colors (3 tones each from 5 hues and 3 achromatic colors). They were then asked to describe the impression (SD method) and effect of the colors on their mood. In addition, the subjects were asked to describe the degree of match (4 point scale) for each of the 8 fragrances (cinnamon, peppermint, vanilla, rosemary, lemon, anise, pepper, and rose) with the 18 colors. According to cluster analysis based on these scores (each of their impression and effect on the mood), 18 colors were classified into 5 clusters, PALE (pale pink, pale yellow etc), COOL (pale sky, vivid green etc), VIVID (vivid red, vivid yellow), DARK (dark red, olive), MONOTONE (dark blue, black). Authors examined the matched fragrances for each the cluster. Based on the results, we found the following associations between cluster and fragrance: vanilla for PALE, peppermint and rosemary for COOL, lemon for VIVID, cinnamon and rose for DARK, and anise and pepper for MONOTONE.

Safety colors designated by the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) are inconsistent with the standards of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In particular, a discrepancy exists for orange, which are designated as safety colors in the JIS and ANSI but not by ISO 3864-1. In the JIS, orange signifies "danger". It is positioned between red, which indicates "high danger", and yellow, which indicates "caution". The purpose of this study was to investigate the level of hazard perception of eight safety colors designated in the JIS. These eight colors consist of six safety colors : red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and reddish purple, and two contrast colors : black and white. Two types of color stimuli, color names and color chips, were used and assigned to two subject groups. One hundred Japanese university students, who were the subjects, rated the level of perceived hazard of the eight colors using a Likert-type scale. In order to examine the reproducibility of the hazard rating, a test-retest method was applied; the test-retest interval was four weeks. The test-retest reliability of both the stimulus groups correlated well; thus, sufficient reproducibility of the individuals' hazard ratings is guaranteed. The result of hazard rating showed that red was associated with the highest level of perceived hazard. It is similar to previous researches. However, the mean rating of orange, which indicates "danger", was significantly lower than that of yellow in both groups. With the exception of reddish purple, the ratings of Japanese color names corresponded well with those of the color chips. When the two contrast colors were compared, the hazard rating of black was the highest after red, whereas those of white, blue, and green were the lowest. The results of the present study imply that the orange as a safety color is less effective from the viewpoint of not only visual perception but also color cognition for Japanese students.

In the previous study;"A Comparative study on Color Preference as <something to wear> and as <surrounding>", authors reported the common and difference between the color preference of two categories, <something to wear> and <surroundings>. The purpose of this study is to compare the tendency of color selections on two categories. 166 subjects (54male/112female) were asked to select the three most highly preferred colors and three least preferred ones, respectively, from the COLOR CHART consisting of 75 color chips, along with the reasons for their choices. In the present study, subjects were classified according to their preferred colors as <something to wear> by cluster analysis. Authors examined the preferred colors as <surroundings> of each group by the general order of preference and by the selections of hue and tone. As a result, same colors were preferred in both categories in general. However, it was cleared that in the detailed classification, some people selected the colors in contrast tone.

Red, as the socialist color, held a special place in China in the past, and nowadays red is still regarded as the most typical color for China. In order to interpret the meaning of red for Chinese students today, a study was conducted at four cities in China, including Beijing, Wuhan, Hangzhou, and Chongqing. When presented with the red color chart, 536 students were asked to answer questions about color preference, associations from red, what items of red they possess and use, the symbolic color for Japan and China, etc. This study found that the Chinese students comparatively preferred red. For them, red has a rich and mixed meaning-of tradition, politics, function etc. Among these associations, the traditional meaning of auspicious strongly influences the tendency to prefer red. At the same time, the meaning of red is renewed through cultural change and the progress of time.

Women have lighter skin and men have darker skin. Such concept works as a gender stereotype, in general. In the experiment, authors investigated the influence of skin color on gender cognition through faces. We focused on the relation between the information from form and color in order to clear how these information effect on gender cognition and how its strategy changes by the development. The stimuli were designed with 2 face patterns (male face/ male-female face), 2 skin colors (lighter skin/ darker skin) and 2 lip types (natural/ colored). Subjects (preschool children, elementary school children and university students) were asked to judge the gender of each face. In the experiment, darker skin tended to make male judgment and lighter skin stimulated observer to classify the face as a female. However, information from form and color influenced each other. For example, when the form was relatively mannish and its lip had natural color, we couldn't obtain the effect of gender stereotype. The preschool children in this study began to refer to skin color on gender cognition around school age. The form information became a factor 2 years behind from the color information. Furthermore, girls showed a certain tendency of developmental change more clearly than boys. Among girls, lighter skin and feminine facial form connect with female judgment with the development. These results suggest that visual experience related faces were unequal between male and female.

People can be accurate at judging the sex from faces (Bruce et al., 1993). This study showed that colorinformation such as skin-color and rip-color also affects the judgment. The first experiment was designed with 8 line drawings featured by 2 averaged face patterns (male and male-female) . Each pattern had 2 types of skin-color (light or dark) and of rip-color (no-colored or light colored). The result of the sex classification and of the roundness rating of each stimuli showed that light skin-color prompted observers to sort the face as female with the male-female pattern. Furthermore, the face with light skin-color was perceived round more. In the second experiment, 30 pictures made of compounded photos were stated in figure 0 to 100 in axes of male-female and skin-color lightness. 5 levels of skin-color and 2 types of rip-color were arranged to 3 averaged patterns (male, female and male-female). One whose skin-color was perceived lighter was judged more feminine even with the same pattern. Moreover, the rating of skin-color lightness increased with the female pattern significantly. These results suggest that the sex and the lightness of skin which are assessed subjectively are inseparably related to each other. These judgments can be ruled by color and pattern information, though both have equal physical value at one phase.

Beauty is a world common aspiration, but perceptions of what make a woman beautiful vary across cultures and countries. A series of Saito's studies indicated that unlike much of the Western world, in Asia, one common desire is fairer skin tone that epitomizes feminine beauty. Using 105 Japanese women and 105 Chinese women as subjects, a comparative study concerning aspiration of Asian Women toward skin fairness was conducted. In this study, four real skin photo images that have skin tone variations (fair/dark) and skin texture variations (rough/smooth) were used. The fifty-two words describe personality were shown to the subject. The subjects were required to match a suitable skin photo image to the descriptive words. The overall result between China and Japan were very consistent. Both in China and Japan, fairer skin tone with smoother skin texture was accepted very positively. Fairer skin tone with rougher texture tends to provide passive and conservative impression while smoother skin texture with darker skin tone tends to provide friendly and delight impression. The results suggested that in addition to skin tone, the skin texture plays an important role for the personal impressions and it works as a trigger to enhance "ideal skin fairness" for Asian women.

To investigate color and number preferences in Japan, 586 university undergraduates (239 men and 347 women; M age = 20.4 yr.) were asked to name a color (Question 1), to name their preferred color (Question 2), and to name their preferred number between zero and nine (Question 3). The results showed that Japanese students chose blue (33.5%) or red (26.0%) when asked to name a color but that red was not chosen as frequently as blue as a preferred color (red: 11.1%, blue:37.1%). Sex differences were found on both Questions 1 and 2 by chi-squared rest. Black was chosen more by men, while pink wa selected more by women. 22.5% subjects also selected the number seven, supporting Simon's observation of the "blue-seven phenomenon" The reasons given for the choice showed that seven was "a lucky number" and "represented happiness" among Japanese students. Four colors (blue, red, white, and black) accounted for 76.8% and 65.1% of responses to Questions 1 and 2, respectively, and odd numbers 68.4% for Question 3.

To measure and compare the main color-preference tendencies in Japan, China, and Indonesia, 490 subjects (175 Japanese, 158 Chinese, and 157 Indonesian) were asked to choose from a color chart the three colors they liked most and the three they liked least and to state the reasons fur their choices. Analysis of the choices by correspondence analysis showed that each area (country) shows tendencies for unique color preference and that there are statistically significant differences in the frequency of selection of colors of certain hues and tones. However, a high preference for white was common to all areas, along with preferences for some other colors. The successive studies done by the author have shown a common strong preference for white in other Asian areas as well. The reasons given for the choices suggested :hat associative images based on environmental and cultural aspects may be important influences on color preference.

Using 176 Japanese and 132 Indonesian university students as subjects, the author investigated the preference for light complexions and the cultural influence on it from the viewpoint of the psychological structure of the aesthetic preference for white. In the first survey, the subjects were asked to choose their preferred colors from a color chart in order to know their general preference for white. In the second survey, the subjects were asked to answer a questionnaire designed to discriminate personal images for the four stimuli of different complexion. The results showed that positive images were associated with a fair complexion in Japan. In Indonesia, on the other hand, the images associated with a fair complexion were rather negative although white itself was highly accepted. Association with images of rareness and scarcity for a fair complexion was, however, common to both countries. This may suggest that the preference for white and whiteness derives from images of something unique and special.

The results of three surveys are presented The first survey was carried out in four large cities in Japan, and the findings were analyzed by factor analysis and cluster analysis. The second survey was carried out in Seoul, Korea and Tokyo, Japan to determine color preference in the two countries, focusing on the preference for white. The last survey compared color preference in Taipei and Tokyo, also with emphasis on the preference for white. In these successive studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian cities, the subjects were mainly asked to choose from a color chart the three colors they liked most and the three they liked least, and to state the reasons for their choices. The results of Survey 1 showed that color preference could be influenced by differences in age, sex, and geographical region. Also factor analysis and cluster analysis indicated some relation between color preference and the subjects' life styles. Dual scaling analysis of the results of Surveys 2 and 3 indicated that each Asian area has unique color preference tendencies and that there are statistically significant differences in the frequency of selection of colors of certain hues and tones. However, a high preference for white was common to all areas, along with preferences for some other colors. These results thus demonstrated a common strong preference for white in three neighboring Asian areas. The reasons given for the choices suggested that besides the factors of age and sex, associative images based on environmental and cultural aspects may be an important factor influencing color preference. (C) 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

In a previous study (A Cross-Cultural Survey on Color Preference in Asian Countries (1) Comparison between Japanese and Koreans with Emphasis on Preference for White), the author compared color preference tendencies in Japanese and Koreans in order to examine the former's steady preference for WHITE. The results indicated that a strong preference for WHITE is common to both Japanese and Koreans. To test the hypothesis that this preference is based on cultural background, it was decided that these observations should be extended to other Asian countries as well. In the present study, comparisons were made with Taiwan, which is close to Japan both geographically and culturally. Data were collected in Tokyo (160 Japanese) and in Taipei (156 Taiwanese), using the same method and stimulus, a "COLOR CHART" consisting of 77 colored chips. The subjects were asked to select their three most highly preferred colors and three least preferred colors in order of preference and non-preference, respectively, and to state the reasons for their choices. The results were analyzed by 1) comparison of the general orders of preference, 2) comparison of the selected colors by hue and tone, 3) mathematical analysis by Dual-Scaling, and 4) mathematical analysis by the chi-square test. It was found that WHITE and VIVID BLUE were popular in both Japan and Taiwan. This corresponded with the results in Korea, However, slight cross-cultural differences were observed in color preferences by hue and tone.

Many studies on color preference have indicated a steady preference for WHITE among Japanese in recent years. The present study aims to compare color preference in Japan with that in Korea, another Asian country that is close to Japan both geographically and culturally. Data were collected Tokyo (100 Japanese) and in Seoul (99 Koreans), using the same method and stimulus. The subjects were asked to select their three most highly preferred colors and three least preferred colors order of preference and non-preference, respectively, along with the reasons for their choices. The results were analyzed by 1) comparison of the general orders of preference, 2) comparison of the selected colors by hue and tone, 3) mathematical analysis by Dual Scaling, and 4) mathematical analysis by the chi-square test. As a result, it was found that WHITE and VIVID BLUE were popular in both countries. However, cross-cultural differences were observed in color preferences by hue and tone.

This study is to find and to classify the characteristics of the subjects' life styles and their color preferences, by applying 'Cluster Analysis' to the data of previous study : "Analysis of Color Preference at Four Different Districts in Japan (1)". The data were collected from Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka and Toyama. 1600 subjects were asked to evaluate 65 colors according to their preference (judge each color according to the categories - as like, dislike or neutral ; select the three most highly preferred colors and the three least preferred ones). They also were to answer some questions concerning their daily lives and life styles. Seven clusters were extracted by the analysis, each having the unique tendencies both in color preference and the life style. Authors aim to analyze and present the differences between the characteristics of the clusters.

The main purpose of this study is to find the current tendency in the color preferences of the Japanese people. The data were collected from four large cities in Japan, each having a somewhat different cultural background : that is, Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka and Toyama. 1600 subjects (803 males, 797 females) were chosen from the districts (400 each), and were asked to evaluate 65 colors according to their preference (judge each color according to the categories - as like, dislike or neutral ; select the three most highly preferred colors and the three least preferred ones). The results of the extracted eight factors from factor analysis indicated that each attribute (region, age, sex) showed its unique tendency in color preference. As some former studies suggested, WHITE was commonly popular in all attributes. A distinctive tendency of preference was also given by the group of people who were interested in current fashion.