<p>Channelrhodopsin (ChR)-1 and ChR2 were the first-identified members of ChRs which are a growing subfamily of microbial-type rhodopsins. Light absorption drives the generation of a photocurrent in cell membranes expressing ChR2. However, the photocurrent amplitude attenuates and becomes steady-state during prolonged irradiation. This process, called desensitization or inactivation, has been attributed to the accumulation of intermediates less conductive to cations. Here we provided evidence that the dark-adapted (DA) photocurrent before desensitization is kinetically different from the light-adapted (LA) one after desensitization, that is, the deceleration of both basal-to-conductive and conductive-to-basal transitions. When the kinetics were compared between the DA and LA photocurrents for the ChR1/2 chimeras, the transmembrane helices, TM1 and TM2, were the determinants of both basal-to-conductive and conductive-to-basal transitions, whereas TM4 may contribute to the basal-to-conductive transitions and TM5 may contribute to the conductive-to-basal transitions, respectively. The fact that the desensitization-dependent decrease of the basal-to-conductive and conductive-to-basal transitions was facilitated by the TM1 exchange from ChR2 to ChR1 and reversed by the further TM2 exchange suggests that the conformation change for the channel gating is predominantly regulated by the interaction between TM1 and TM2. Although the exchange of TM1 from ChR2 to ChR1 showed no obvious influence on the spectral sensitivity, this exchange significantly induced the desensitization-dependent blue shift. Therefore, the TM1 and 2 are the main structures involved in two features of the desensitization, the stabilization of protein conformation and the charge distribution around the retinal-Schiff base (RSB⁺).</p>

Calcium (Ca2+) is a versatile intracellular second messenger that operates in various signaling pathways leading to multiple biological outputs. The diversity of spatiotemporal patterns of Ca2+ signals, generated by the coordination of Ca2+ influx from the extracellular space and Ca2+ release from the intracellular Ca2+ store the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is considered to underlie the diversity of biological outputs caused by a single signaling molecule. However, such Ca2+ signaling diversity has not been well described because of technical limitations. Here, we describe a new method to report Ca2+ signals at subcellular resolution. We report that OER-GCaMP6f, a genetically encoded Ca2+ indicator (GECI) targeted to the outer ER membrane, can monitor Ca2+ release from the ER at higher spatiotemporal resolution than conventional GCaMP6f. OER-GCaMP6f was used for in vivo Ca2+ imaging of C elegans. We also found that the spontaneous Ca2+ elevation in cultured astrocytes reported by OER-GCaMP6f showed a distinct spatiotemporal pattern from that monitored by plasma membrane-targeted GCaMP6f (Lck-GCaMP6f); less frequent Ca2+ signal was detected by OER-GCaMP6f, in spite of the fact that Ca2+ release from the ER plays important roles in astrocytes. These findings suggest that targeting of GECI5 to the ER outer membrane enables sensitive detection of Ca2+ release from the ER at subcellular resolution, avoiding the diffusion of GECI and Ca2+. Our results indicate that Ca2+ imaging with OER-GCaMP6f in combination with Lck-GCaMP6f can contribute to describing the diversity of Ca2+ signals, by enabling dissection of Ca2+ signals at subcellular resolution. (C) 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory is fixed solidly by repetition. However, the cellular mechanism underlying this repetition-dependent memory consolidation/reconsolidation remains unclear. In our previous study using stable slice cultures of the rodent hippocampus, we found long-lasting synaptic enhancement/suppression coupled with synapse formation/elimination after repeated inductions of chemical LTP/LTD, respectively. We proposed these phenomena as useful model systems for analyzing repetition-dependent memory consolidation. Recently, we analyzed the dynamics of dendritic spines during development of the enhancement, and found that the spines increased in number following characteristic stochastic processes. The current study investigates spine dynamics during the development of the suppression. We found that the rate of spine retraction increased immediately leaving that of spine generation unaltered. Spine elimination occurred independent of the pre-existing spine density on the dendritic segment. In terms of elimination, mushroom-type spines were not necessarily more stable than stubby-type and thin-type spines.

The repetition of experience is often necessary to establish long-lasting memory. However, the cellular mechanisms underlying this repetition-dependent consolidation of memory remain unclear. We previously observed in organotypic slice cultures of the rodent hippocampus that repeated inductions of long-term potentiation (LTP) led to a slowly developing long-lasting synaptic enhancement coupled with synaptogenesis. We also reported that repeated inductions of long-term depression (LTD) produced a long-lasting synaptic suppression coupled with synapse elimination. We proposed these phenomena as useful in vitro models for analyzing repetition-dependent consolidation. Here, we hypothesized that the enhancement and suppression are mediated by the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-TrkB signaling pathway and the proBDNF-p75 NTR pathway, respectively. When we masked the respective pathways, reversals of the enhancement and suppression resulted. These results suggest the alternative activation of the p75 NTR pathway by BDNF under TrkB-masking conditions and of the TrkB pathway by proBDNF under p75 NTR -masking conditions, thus supporting the aforementioned hypothesis.

Abstract

Synaptic plasticity, especially structural plasticity, is thought to be a basis for long‐lasting memory. We previously reported that, in rat hippocampus slice cultures, repeated induction of long‐term depression (LTD) by application of a metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonist led to slowly developing, long‐lasting synaptic suppression coupled with synapse elimination. We referred to this phenomenon as LOSS (LTD‐repetition‐operated synaptic suppression) to discriminate it from conventional single LTD and proposed it as a model for analyzing structural plasticity. Recently, proneurotrophin‐activated p75^NTR signaling has been gaining attention as a possible pathway for the regulation of both neuronal apoptosis and synaptic plasticity. In this study, we examined whether this signaling has a role in the establishment of LOSS. The application of anisomycin indicated that, for LOSS to occur, novel protein synthesis is needed within 6 hr after the induction of mGluR‐dependent LTD, which demonstrates that LOSS is an active process and therefore is not due to withering in response to a shortage of trophic factors. Furthermore, we found that pro‐BDNF (a species of proneurotrophins) is newly synthesized within 6 hr after the induction of LTD. We therefore exogenously applied a cleavage‐resistant form of pro‐BDNF, finding synaptic suppression similar to LOSS. LOSS could be abolished by the application of an antibody that binds to and neutralizes p75^NTR following repeated LTD induction. These results suggest involvement of the p75^NTR signaling pathway in the long‐lasting decremental form of synaptic plasticity. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.