<title>Abstract</title>
The Tokyo Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) is the first cap -and-trade program of CO₂ emissions in Asia, and it is unique in regulating commercial and service sectors. We examine the impacts of the Tokyo ETS on CO₂ emissions and energy consumption by universities in the first phase. Focusing on universities allows us to estimate the effects of the Tokyo ETS separately from the economic stagnation Japan experienced after the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011 because universities are less likely to be affected by economic fluctuations compared to other sectors. In addition to the ETS, other factors may have achieved CO₂ emissions reductions in Tokyo in this phase due to the influence of the earthquake. To deal with the shortage of electricity supply after the Fukushima disaster, several measures were undertaken, such as rolling blackouts and power-saving orders, particularly in the Tokyo Electricity Power Company’s jurisdiction. To capture the characteristics for each university at the campus level and their experience with being regulation targets of the policies mentioned above, we conducted a mail survey for universities in Japan and obtained panel data that contain information about both regulated and unregulated universities over 5 years (2009–2013). The difference-in-differences approach reveals that the Tokyo ETS caused regulated universities to reduce their CO₂ emissions and energy consumption by approximately 3–5% relative to unregulated universities in the first phase. In addition, we find that the quantitative regulations, such as rolling blackouts and power-saving orders, also had an impact on the universities’ behavior.

<title>Abstract</title>Tokyo ETS is the first emissions trading scheme to control GHG emissions from office buildings. Although the Tokyo government claimed that Tokyo ETS had been successful, some argued that the emission reduction under Tokyo ETS was actually the result of electricity price increases triggered by the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011. Using a facility-level data set for Japanese office buildings, we conducted an econometric analysis to examine the impact of Tokyo ETS. We found that half of the emission reduction is a result of the ETS, while the rest of the reduction is due to the electricity price increase. Another unique feature of Tokyo ETS is that an accurate permit price is not publicly available due to its design. Using our estimated model, we found that the price is approximately $50 per ton of CO₂ in the early phase.

<p>In Japan, eco-friendly vehicles, such as hybrid vehicles, have been attracting attention as the government promotes them with subsidies and tax reductions. The target vehicles for promotion are selected according to their fuel economy performance, as per a nationwide uniform policy. Previous studies in Japan have observed a rebound effect when improved fuel economy increases the vehicle miles traveled; whereas no study has analyzed the differences in this rebound effect among domestic regions. If our study finds a gap in the rebound effect among regions, then the uniform promotion will be rendered cost-inefficient. Therefore, based on a survey of 790 households, this paper examines whether the rebound effect in urban regions is the same as in rural regions. Our empirical results show that: 1) there is no rebound effect in urban regions and, 2) the rebound effect is approximately 38 percent in rural regions. These findings suggest that the cost-effectiveness of the promotion in rural regions is less than that in urban regions. Thus, the government needs to set different subsidies for rural and urban regions, and promote the use of a public transport system in rural regions.</p>