The current study had two objectives: (a) to quantitatively investigate whether Japanese language learners of English have inclusive second language (L2) self-related motivations, and how inclusive L2 self-related motivations contribute to English learning effort and self-rated English ability, and (b) to qualitatively examine how Japanese learners of English incorporate parental expectations and values about English into their L2 self during each stage of their English learning experience, and how higher and lower English proficiency learners incorporate parental values and opinions into their L2 self. We found that an inclusive L2 self-related motivation explained the interaction between social/contextual factors and English learning effort or self-rated English ability. A gap was observed between higher and lower English proficiency groups regarding the degree of incorporating parental expectations, values, and feelings about English into their sense of L2 self. Having an inclusive L2 self successfully introduces different viewpoints into current self-related motivational frameworks within language learning contexts, which to date have only emphasised individual levels of self perspectives to the exclusion of inclusive self figures derived from social surroundings.

Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) is an established macro-theory of human motivation, and differentiates two broad motivational orientations: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. SDT is comprised of 6 mini-theories, each designed to address questions about human motivation and the process that facilitate and harm it. For foreign language researchers, these theories offer a clear, integrated framework for understanding motivation that translates across disciplines. For language teachers, SDT offer integrated principles for how to improve motivational quality. For language learners in formal education settings, these mini-theories offer a comprehensive set of ideas for generating internally regulated motives. This article will provide a comprehensive, up-to-date overview of SDT and how it can be applied to relevant issues in language education research and pedagogy.

Purpose: Factors of self-regulated learning processes, namely teacher autonomy support/parental autonomy support, and three types of individual goal-orientations (i.e. mastery goal, performance-approach goal, performance-avoidance goal) were examined. Methodology: A questionnaire was used to survey 212 Japanese undergraduate students who were enrolled in English language courses. Findings: Teacher and parental autonomy support were positive predictors of intrinsic value, which in turn positively predicted metacognitive and cognitive strategy use. Performance-avoidance goal disposition was a positive predictor of metacognitive strategy use; however, it was a negative predictor of cognitive strategy use. Mastery goal disposition was a positive predictor of intrinsic value, which in turn positively predicted meta-cognitive and cognitive strategy use. Individual factors (i.e. goal orientations) were predictors of self-regulated learning processes and support from parents and teachers were required to sustain these self-regulated processes. Value: Intrinsic value appears to be a key mediator in predicting meta-cognitive and cognitive strategy use for individual factors, parental autonomy support and teacher autonomy support factors. Findings from this research provide a better understanding of self-regulated learning processes in the Japanese language learning context.

The study focuses on the role of different theories when considered together in a foreign language other than English (LOTE) context. Specifically, the study examines (a) to what extent influential second language (L2) motivational theories, when integrated, explain motivation to learn LOTEs, and (b) how the powerful status of English in Japan affects learners’ self- and identity-related motivation to learn LOTEs. Survey responses of 250 Japanese learners, who simultaneously learned a foreign LOTE and English as a required language, were analyzed using a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. The results offer insight into how various coexisting social factors are connected to learners’ multiple self- and identity-related orientations, which in turn predict several varied academic consequences (e.g., effort, attitude, and L2 ability). We also confirmed positive and negative interplay of English- and LOTE-related orientations such that the self- and identity-related orientations of the languages will play a competing role (e.g., Csizér & Lukács, 2010). This finding highlights the importance of taking sociopolitical perspectives into consideration in a context where learners learn two languages and one has a specific political presence.

To support students' motivation to learn a foreign language, teachers should understand the reasons why their students wish to learn the language and incorporate this information in their teaching practice. The survey of 128 Canadian learners of Japanese focused on three questions: What are students' orientations for wanting to learn Japanese, and how are these orientations interrelated? Do orientations differently predict learning engagement and academic outcomes on the one hand, and language community engagement, on the other? What aspects of teachers' support best facilitate students' self-determination and intercultural integrativeness? The results showed that self-determined orientations were the best predictors of learning engagement and academic outcomes, but cultural knowledge development and intercultural interaction best predicted Japanese community engagement. Students who perceived their teacher as supporting competence and relatedness also reported greater self-determination. These results underscore the motivational significance of self-related and integrative orientations for learning a foreign language, even in settings where there is little opportunity for interaction with members of the target language community. These findings emphasize that foreign language teachers can foster students' motivation by supporting their sense of competence, relatedness and cultural understanding, although these supports may differ in their importance depending on the students' level of self-determination. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The objective is to examine the changes in the effectiveness of motivational strategy use by teachers during one semester in the English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms. More specifically, we investigate differences in effectiveness changes for each motivational strategy used according to students' English proficiency levels and their original motivational intensity levels in order to understand the process by which instructors influence students' motivation. The participants were an instructor and 222 university students. Two distinct clusters were found within the student sample based on cluster analysis: Cluster A) students with higher English proficiency and higher motivational intensity
and Cluster B) students with lower English proficiency and lower motivational intensity. The results showed that (a) the two clusters did not exhibit a similar trend in terms of the relationship between frequency of motivational strategy use by teachers and students' motivation except with respect to two motivational strategies
(b) seven strategies showed positive correlations at least once in the semester in either Cluster A or Cluster B
(c) five strategies showed no significant correlations throughout the semester
and (d) there were three strategies that did not show a positive correlation
however, these strategies were associated with a negative correlation throughout the semester in either Cluster A or Cluster B. © 2012 © 2012 Taylor &amp
Francis.

In this article, the authors present an empirical study on motivational strategies in English as a foreign language classes at the lower secondary school level. Teachers' actual use of 15 motivational strategies was described on the basis of self-reported frequency data over a two-month period. Furthermore, the relationships between the frequency of these 15 motivational strategies and the strength of students' motivation were investigated. The overall results showed that (1) teachers used these motivational strategies in a variety of ways
(2) there were only a few motivational strategies which showed a significant correlation with students' motivation. In addition, the authors found that (3) the effectiveness of some motivational strategies varied according to students' English proficiency level. Implications of these findings are discussed at the end of the article. © 2010 Taylor &amp
Francis.

The purpose of the present study is to provide implications on how teachers can make students be more motivated in EFL learning outside the classroom. For this purpose, the present study focuses on; 1) the construct of motivational influences on English learning outside the classroom perceived by 1,141 Japanese secondary school students of EFL; 2) the relationship between these influences and students' English proficiency levels; and 3) teachers' perception of these motivational influences. A questionnaire was administered to obtain the factors for motivational influences which affected the students' motivation for English learning outside the classroom. Through the factor analysis, six factors were found. The results of correlation and MANOVA analyses showed that each factor was found to be more or less related to students' English proficiency levels. These findings were then compared with EFL teachers' perception obtained through interviews. The comparisons suggested that there existed some discrepancies between the empirical realities and the teachers' perception. Implications of these findings are then discussed.

This paper presents the results of an empirical study examining the encouragements used by teachers in EFL classes. To find out the actual use of encouragements, the authors first adopted the following two steps : 1) classroom video-observations of verbal encouragements by teachers in schools ranging from elementary to university level ; and 2) a questionnaire survey to obtain students' attitudes and preferences toward encouragements. The frequency data shows that elementary school teachers tend to give more encouragements than those at other schools. Also, high school teachers are liable to provide fewer encouragements. Apart from teachers in junior high, teachers in senior high school and university directed more encouragements at individuals than at the whole class. In addition, huge differences between teachers' use and students' preferences of encouragements are found.