Japan has been struggling with 'immigration'-the 'I' word-for three decades (Roberts, this issue). Instead of calling it immigration, bringing in foreigners is packaged as absorbing global talents, as ethnic return, and as international aids. These disguises reflect Japan's deep ambivalence toward immigration. The country is aware that in order to maintain economic power and material affluence, it is necessary to bring in 'foreign people', but it is unwilling to imagine changes to the cherished Japanese ways of life. Immigration is seen as a threat to national identity. However, despite political ambivalence and cultural resistance, immigration has in fact taken place in Japan. By 2016, over two million foreign nationals have lived and worked in Japan, and this does not include the 400,000 people who have naturalized since 1980 (Du 2015). 1

Labelled as the third wave of migration out of post-reform China, the recent emigration of wealthy Chinese has attracted worldwide attention. Although this form of mobility involves primarily the richest 0.1 per cent of the Chinese population, the high profile of the people who move and the amount of wealth implied have made it a sensational social phenomenon. Through interviews, participant observation and media reports, this paper searches for the social meanings of this trend of emigration. Journalists generally attribute the exodus of the rich to a desire to secure their wealth, an aspiration for a different education for their children, or concerns with air pollution and food safety. What this paper argues is that underneath these stated motivations, emigration is in fact a form of class-based consumption, a strategy for class reproduction, and a way to convert economic resources into social status and prestige. "Emigration" ( yimin), a form of mobility that may not entail settling abroad, is a path created by wealthy Chinese striving to be among the global elite.

At the first sight of “(without tenure)” after my name in the Student Handbook’s faculty name list, I felt disbelief and humiliation. Haven’t I been hired on tenure track? Why do they have to put such a distinctive identification in ahandbook for students? No other full-time faculty member had such a qualifier following their name. I went upstairs to the administrative office to see Mr Utsuno1, the administrator in charge of the logistics related to my recruitment. I pointed at the parenthesized note and asked, “Is it necessary to indicate that I am without tenure? It is a bit awkward. ‘Without tenure’ soundslike I am a fixed-term hire, but I am an associate professor on a tenure track.’On tenure track’ is different from ‘without tenure’. Utsuno-san, patient and gentle as always, answered, “So sorry! This is the English translation the Department of Human Resources (jinjibu) uses for the Japanese term ninkitsuki (fixed-term hire). Probably it is not so appropriate.”Pausing for a while, he nodded, “You are right. Your employment condition is an administrative matter. We don’t need to include it in the brochure for students.”.

This chapter considers the case of Chinese students currently studying in Tokyo to shed light on the mechanisms that have created diverse outcomes of international education. The author examines student mobility from a sociological perspective, interpreting student mobility as a migration process that develops in an interaction between individual migrant characteristics and socio-institutional contexts. Based on students' narratives, she finds that for the new generation of Chinese students in Japan, labor market conditions and the support from as well as the duty toward the family are particularly important factors that shape students' mobility.

Since the late-1970s, millions of Chinese have arrived in Japan as students, workers, family members, long-term residents, and undocumented migrant workers. Hundreds of thousands of them have chosen to settle in this country. This paper introduces the major patterns of contemporary migration from China to Japan and describes some characteristics of Chinese migrants, highlighting the transnationality of their socioeconomic practices and settlement orientation. It also discusses the impact of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake on the Chinese community, pointing out that migration decision-making takes into account a complex set of contextual factors. Natural disasters might only be a small part of the causal reasons or a catalyst at best. On the other hand, the shared disaster experience might be an opportunity for migrants to participate in societal building and cultivate a sense of belonging.

The Chinese in Japan show two curious characteristics. First, they object to being called ‘immigrants’. Instead, they embrace the identity ‘New Overseas Chinese’, a label invented and popularized by the Chinese in Japan. Second, they prefer permanent residency over naturalization. Although it is generally considered easier to obtain Japanese citizenship than permanent residency, three times as many Chinese immigrants applied and obtained permanent residency as Japanese citizenships between 2003 and 2007. This chapter argues that both the choice of ‘New Overseas Chinese’ identity and the preference for permanent residency in Japan speaks of the Chinese migrants’ desire to maintain a flexible cross-border living and are in congruence with their transnational outlooks. It shows that such desire and outlooks are shaped by the intersections of the social and cultural contexts of Japan and supported by the expanding transnational economy between Japan and China. On the one hand, Chinese migrants’ identifications and transnational outlooks represent their strategies to overcome their marginality in a society they perceive as resistant to immigration and closed to outsiders. On the other hand, Chinese migrants, especially skilled migrants, typically employ their Chinese cultural and linguistic skills in the Japanese labor market and occupy economic positions that have to do with businesses in China. Moreover, with the expanding global economy, the recent Chinese migrants in Japan have begun to interact with older and well-established global overseas Chinese networks. Their economic roles and practices further strengthen their identity as ‘New Overseas Chinese’.

Expanding international education and economic globalisation have changed both the make-up of international labour migrants and the patterns of immigrant economic adaptation. Chinese student migrants' employment experiences and economic mobility in Japan suggest that an immigrant occupational niche has emerged among Japanese firms characterised by a set of corporate positions that specifically deal with businesses in China. These firms preferentially recruit Chinese student migrants to fill these positions. This paper discusses the mechanisms that shape such an immigrant occupational niche and the opportunities and constraints presented to Chinese students in Japan. It discusses the paradoxical effects the existence of an occupational niche has on Chinese students, and argues that it provides a pathway for immigrants to enter a previously inaccessible labour market. However, the existence of an immigrant occupational niche itself is a product of prevailing institutional, structural and cultural barriers in the host society. © 2011 Taylor & Francis.

This article investigates patterns and contexts of heterosexual extramarital practices among Chinese immigrants in Japan, and their social implications. I show that first, both Chinese men and women were engaged in extramarital sexual behavior during migration albeit in different contexts. Secondly, these extramarital sexual practices imply that international migration is both an economic strategy and a sexual strategy. Even economically motivated migration has sexual and emotional motivations and consequences. Thirdly, Chinese immigrants' extramarital sex is culturally specific to the context of migration from China to Japan. Finally, Chinese immigrants' extramarital sexuality shows the competing cultural interpretations of marriages and gender role expectations. Underlying the extramarital sexuality is an assumption of gender equality in sexual subjectivity. Even a seemingly regressive marital arrangement and gendered role assignment in a marriage could be used strategically by Chinese women in their pursuits of sexual and romantic expressions. © The Author(s), 2010.

International education is an important channel of labor migration. Most commonly, this form of labor migration is considered as "brain drain," represented by the retention of graduate students in science and engineering in the host labor market. This case study of contemporary Chinese student migration to Japan shows that international students have different credentials, interests, and motivations for migrating abroad, and consequently provide the host society both unskilled and skilled labor power. Moreover, Chinese students' labor market practices as skilled labor migrants show their important roles in the economic globalization. Aside from scientific and engineering skills, Chinese students use their linguistic and cultural competencies to act as intermediaries between their host and home economies. © 2009 by the Center for Migration Studies of New York. All rights reserved.

This paper provides a sociological analysis of the student visa-overstaying phenomenon among Fujian Chinese immigrants in Japan. Since the mid-1980s, international education has been an important channel of migration from China to Japan. With the rapid increase of Chinese students in Japan, student visa overstaying has also become a major source of undocumented migration. Student visa overstaying is particularly visible among Chinese students from the Southeast coastal province, Fujian. This paper probes into this phenomenon by examining Fujian immigrants' migration network characteristics. It argues that the social capital that facilitates migration and secures the livelihood for immigrants can become a liability prohibiting them from achieving upward mobility in the host society. Fujian immigrant social network closure cultivates and maintains a norm that positively sanctions undocumented immigration and provides resources that make it difficult for Fujian immigrants to maintain legal status. © The Author 2008. Published by Oxford University Press in conjunction with the University of Tokyo. All rights reserved.

This study examined sexual satisfaction and its social and behavioral correlates among urbanites aged 20-64 in China, using data from a nationally representative sample of 1,194 women and 1,217 men with a spouse or other long-term sexual partner with whom they had sex during the last year. The results from structural equation models suggest a multiplex set of determinants of sexual satisfaction, including relationship characteristics, sexual knowledge and personal values, physical vitality, and environmental impediments. A large proportion of the effect of these background characteristics was mediated by frequent orgasms, varied sexual practices, and perceived partner affection. In particular, much of the effect of knowledge and beliefs was mediated through variety in sexual practices. While many of the observed patterns were shared among women and men, much of the effect of relationship characteristics was mediated through perceived partner affection for women. Men, in contrast, paid greater attention to his partner's physical attractiveness and to her extramarital sex. A sexual transition is well underway in urban China, even if more rapidly for men than for women. While knowledge and values are arguably more important in this transitional period, many antecedents of sexual well-being drawn from the literature on sexual behavior in developed Western countries are also applicable to urban China. © 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

This article is a sociological ethnography of a Chinese immigrant social dance subculture in Japan. It examines the logic of immigrants' leisure participation from a social psychological perspective. Traditional immigrant community studies, focusing on immigrants' social and economic adaptation and ethnic minority's political mobilization, emphasize the collective identity building and group solidarity in immigrant ethnic subcultures. Without downplaying the theme of collective identity, I argue that the recognition of individual status is an equally important motivation. Social cohesion within an immigrant subculture is achieved because ethnic enclosure allows the removal of a stigmatizing immigrant identity, giving immigrants a chance to display individual status resources.

We can find many immigrants' communities in Pacific Rim area. Here, not only major migrants such as ethnic Chinese and oversea Indians, but Japanese, southeastern Asian origin peoples in US, and Africans in Asia. Even in the case of Chinese and Indians, their communities have a vast variety.
This project presented varieties of immigrats' community in this area, and rapid changes after 2001. These rapid changes and volume of immigrants are supported by improvement of transporation, world wide communication, and money transfer. We also tried to describe immigrants' community not from viewpoint of residents but from frequent travellers.

This research project compares the sense of belonging and citizenship consciousness among the first and second generation Chinese, Brazilian and Vietnamese immigrants in Australia and Japan. Through this exercise, we hope to answer the question whether Japan is on its way to become an immigrant country. Through interviews, survey and media analysis in both countries, this study shows that different receiving contexts have created different levels of citizenship consciousness and different types of identity among immigrants originated from the same countries. This study clarifies issues surrounding immigrant incorporation in Japanese society.

During this financial year, our project team's major efforts were made in the following two areas. First, based on the data we have already accumulated and in order to be able to conduct meaningful comparative analysis, we adjusted the focuses of the project and did a new wave of data gathering. In particular, Farrer (PI) aimed to compare the first generation immigrants' socioeconomic mobility patterns and their sense of belonging in Japan. Since data on Nikkei Brazilians was not sufficient, she and her research assistant conducted fieldwork--both participant observation and focus group discussion--among this group of immigrants in Kanto Area. This research effort gives insights to the causes for different mobility trajectories between different immigrant groups in Japan, especially in accounting for the socioeconomic mobility gap between Nikkei Brazilians and the Chinese and Koreans. In addition, after finishing gathering the data in Australia, Kawakami (CI) continued to gather data among second-generation Vietnamese immigrants in Japan, so as to be able to compare their identity and belonging in these two different immigrants contexts.
The other main research activity this year was data analysis and preparing research reports for publication. Tajima (CI) and Zhao (Research Collaborator) presented their research paper at the Japanese Society of Sociology Annual Conference. Farrer presented at several international conferences and symposiums. One of her articles is published in Asian Pacific Migration Review (SSCI journal).

The objective of the research was to analyze the social mobility of “newcomers" or foreign migrants who arrived in Japan after the late 1980s. To this aim, we collected large-scale data on foreign migrants based on both qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative data were derived from in-depth interviews with 130 foreign migrants (Year 1), while quantitative data were obtained through an Internet-based survey (Year 2 and 3). We have found so far that social mobility patterns vary significantly among the major nationality groups and that they depend more on migrants' region of origin rather than on class origins

Changes in the way of internationalization of higher education to the rapid structural changes in the world, was examined in a comprehensive manner from the theory, international trends and field surveys. First, the internationalization of higher education in each country is different due to differences in the domestic and international context. Second, countries are faced with a necessity of stronger response to global changes. Third, the multilateral initiatives of higher education are in progress. These factors have had a major impact on the international positioning of higher education in Japan.

Changes in the way of internationalization of higher education to the rapid structural changes in the world, was examined in a comprehensive manner from the theory, international trends and field surveys. First, the internationalization of higher education in each country is different due to differences in the domestic and international context. Second, countries are faced with a necessity of stronger response to global changes. Third, the multilateral initiatives of higher education are in progress. These factors have had a major impact on the international positioning of higher education in Japan.

今日のグローバル化による日本・中国間の活発な経済、文化交流の発展に伴い、日本における中国人就職者が急増している。法務省の統計によると、留学ビザから就職ビザに変更した元留学生の三分の二を中国人元留学生が占めている。それらの中国人元留学生たちは日本企業において、中国関係のビジネスを中心に活躍している状況である。本研究の目的は、日本の企業に勤めている中国人就職者(元留学生)の就職状況とキャリア移動(転職、昇進、職種変更など)を調査・研究することであった。当初の研究実施計画では、東北大学の中国人卒業生を対象として、アンケート及びインタビュー調査をする予定であった。また、そのアンケート回答者の中から10人ないし15人を抽出し、キャリア移動の具体的なプロセスや動機がわかるように、個人訪問をしてフォローアップインタビュー調査をする予定であった。しかし、個人情報保護法の影響により、東北大学卒業生名簿が本研究に使用できなくなった。そこで、研究代表者は平成19年の夏末から秋にかけて関東地方の中国入団体を訪問してアンケート調査の可能性を探り、日本国際貿易促進会の中日関係企業データに収録された1600社の日本企業を通して、中国人就職者(元留、学生)にアンケートを配布することにし、準備を進めた。

２０１４年8月４日～２０１４年８月２５日・中国上海でアメリカ、オーストリア、ヨローパへの投資移民を申請した、あるいはしている10名以上の個人対象者の聞き取りをした。又、二つの移民仲介会社に訪れ、フォーカスグループを行った。その成果を "Outmigration of the Rich and the Shaping of an Elite Class inContemporary China"というタイトルの論文にして、国際ジャーナルChinaQuarterlyに投稿した。または、２０１５年２月１２－１４日に、”Japan’sNew Immigrants: Capturing the Changing Ethno-scape in a Globalizing Japan”という国際シンポジムを開催し、 この分野の研究している国内或いは国外の研究者との意見交換ができた。このシンポジムで発表された論文をSocial Science Japan Journalで特集として投稿する予定がある。又は、共著の本を編集する企画がある。

Research Goal: The purpose of this special research grant is to partially conduct the proposed Kaken Kiban-B project that failed to obtain a grant during the FY 2011-2 and prepare for the Kaken application due in October 2011. The original research goal for the proposed Kaken Project is to investigate the citizenship consciousness and sense of belonging among different immigrant groups in Japan, and compare them with those who have migrated into Australia, a more classic immigrant country. Due to the limited funding, the researcher was only able to investigate the Chinese immigrants in Japan, and taking advantage of a conference trip to the U.S., compare them with Chinese immigrants who have settled in the U.S.--another classic immigrant country. Research activities: The main research activities during this period is fieldwork. This project employed 4 Waseda University MA students to conduct interviews and transcribing these interviews. During the course between June, 2011 when the funding started and mid-November, 2011 when the funding ended (because my Kaken Kiban-B project was finally approved), with the help of these research assistants, we were able to interview 44 Chinese immigrants in Japan, including both 1st generation immigrants who have been in Japan for over 5 years and 1.5 generation immigrants who arrived in Japan before the age of 12. These interviews yielded valuable insights into the Chinese community in Japan. In order to understand the Chinese in Japan better, the researcher also conducted fieldwork among settled Chinese immigrants in the U.S. because the research needed to go to a conference there in any case. In the Southeast of US, the researchers met with an ethnic Chinese anthropology professor, Guo Zibin, from the University of Tennessee, in order to better understand the Chinese community there. The researcher also interviewed settled Chinese professionals in North Carolina. This overseas fieldwork provides wider perspectives for understanding the Chinese in Japan. Self-evaluation of the research progress and outcomes:This was a particular productive research year, thanks to the help of the 4 capable and diligent RAs. This research grant allowed me to collect a lot of data efficiently and established solid empirical and theoretical foundation for the kaken kiban-B project that is on-going now.

This project proposed to understand international students’ career aspirations and how they perceive the opportunity structure in Japanese labor market. Based on my research among the Chinese student migrants in Japan, I hypothesized that both home country’s economic situations and the transnational economic ties between home and host countries affect international students’ labor market participation and their career outcomes in Japan. Because of the limit of budget, the actual fieldwork was reduced in the fiscal year. With the assistance of students, I surveyed and interviewed with international students at Waseda University. Following are some findings from this investigation. 1) Employment prospect did influence whether students aspire to remain in Japan upon graduation. For example, among government funded international students, Southeast Asian students were more likely to feel that they were bound to service their home countries upon finishing their designated degrees in Japan. It scarcely crossed their mind that they might look for employment in Japan. In comparison, Chinese, North American and European students, except for JDS students, were more likely not only to consider staying in Japan, but also to find employment in Japan upon finishing their target education. 2) Most privately funded international students expressed interest in working in Japan if employment was possible and also participated in organized recruiting events. There was this awareness that Japanese companies, especially globalized firms, were actively recruiting international students. But the degree of aspiration was different among European and North American students and East Asian students, especially Chinese students. Chinese students demonstrated a stronger aspiration to work in Japan upon graduation. They were more active in participating in the institutionalized job searching process. 3) While European and North American students were more likely to look for jobs in their home country companies, and chose to stay in Japan partly because of the difficulty in reentering the labor market in their home countries, Chinese students are more aware of their occupational niche in Japanese firms. Many expressed their conscious choice of positions involved in the transnational economy between Japan and China, and believed that their career advantages lied in such occupational niches.