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<jats:title content-type="abstract-subheading">Purpose</jats:title>
<jats:p>This study aims to examine the effect of the perceived sponsor ubiquity on sponsor favorability via perceived sponsor sincerity and the moderating effect of perceived sponsor–property fit.</jats:p>
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<jats:title content-type="abstract-subheading">Design/methodology/approach</jats:title>
<jats:p>Two studies via a questionnaire survey of spectators attending a Japanese professional basketball game were conducted, and Hayes’ PROCESS macro was used for data analyses. Study 1 (<jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 134) assessed how perceived sponsor ubiquity affected sponsor favorability via perceived sponsor sincerity. Study 2 (<jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 206) examined a moderated mediation model incorporating a perceived sponsor–property fit.</jats:p>
</jats:sec>
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<jats:title content-type="abstract-subheading">Findings</jats:title>
<jats:p>In Studies 1 and 2, spectators perceiving a higher degree of sponsor ubiquity reported a lower degree of sponsor sincerity compared with those perceiving a lower degree of sponsor ubiquity and less favorability toward sponsors. In Study 2, the less positive effect of highly perceived ubiquity was weakened when spectators perceived a higher degree of sponsor–property fit.</jats:p>
</jats:sec>
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<jats:title content-type="abstract-subheading">Practical implications</jats:title>
<jats:p>The findings provided sponsors with insights into effectively communicating perceived ubiquity and perceived sponsor–property fit. Hence, sponsors must be careful about their ubiquitous sponsorships, as their engagement in each property can be perceived as less distinctive among consumers.</jats:p>
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<jats:title content-type="abstract-subheading">Originality/value</jats:title>
<jats:p>To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to highlight the mediating mechanism of perceived insincerity between perceived ubiquity and favorability toward sponsors. Furthermore, evidence that fit acted as a moderator on perceived ubiquity–outcome relationships extended previous studies mainly treating fit as a direct antecedent of sponsor response.</jats:p>
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Purpose

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of sport fans' team identification on their emotional experiences (i.e. vitality and game satisfaction) using two-wave data in a specific sport event during the declaration of the emergency statement in Japan. The study also aims to test the moderating effects of risk perceptions about COVID-19 and the game outcome on the relationship between team identification and vitality/game satisfaction.

Design/methodology/approach

The present research was conducted in the context of a sport event in Tokyo (the Japanese Rugby Top League 2020–2021 Season Playoff Tournament Final) during the declaration of the emergency statement period in Japan. The data were collected through a two-wave design (before and after the game) from the spectators of the event.

Findings

Team identification significantly predicted higher vitality after the game but not game satisfaction. Additionally, the moderation test found that sport fans with high social risk perception about the COVID-19 showed a positive relationship between team identification and vitality but not for the fans with low social risk perception.

Practical implications

The present results suggest that sport events can be advertised for sport fans as a tool to increase physical and psychological energy in their daily lives during the pandemic.

Originality/value

The present study demonstrated that team identification predicted greater vitality after the spectatorship during the COVID-19 outbreak. In particular, higher social risk perception was a significant catalyst to improve vitality after the game.

<jats:p>The 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan significantly promoted football in the host countries. However, it remains unclear how the event has changed mass football (soccer in North America) participation. This study applies points of attachment (POA)—a well-developed concept in the field of sport management—to the 2002 FIFA World Cup and aims to examine which specific POA promoted football participation frequency immediately after the event and the present frequency of football participation in the host countries. An online questionnaire survey was conducted in South Korea (<jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 405) and Japan (<jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 398). The samples included adults aged &amp;gt; 19 as of the hosting date of the 2002 World Cup. Hierarchical regression analyses were performed to test all the datasets by employing four POAs (players, coaches, national teams, and football) as independent variables. Multiple control variables (e.g., nationality and age) and two dependent variables (football participation frequency immediately after the event and the present frequency of football participation) were included in the model. Correspondingly, those who had a higher attachment to each point during the event showed a higher frequency of football participation immediately after the event. In contrast, only two POAs (players and coaches) led to a higher frequency of present football participation. These findings provide the first empirical evidence highlighting the influence of the 2002 FIFA World Cup on mass football participation depending on the POA.</jats:p>

<jats:p>This research aimed to examine (1) the effect of domain overlap between CSR activity and Corporate Social Irresponsibility (CSI) (i.e., CSR strongly or weakly associated with CSI) on attitude toward the sponsor via CSR perception of sponsor and (2) the moderating effects of perceived firm-serving motive for CSR activity. The authors conducted two experiment studies: Study 1 tested the mediation model; Study 2 assessed the moderated mediation model. Participants reported a less positive attitude toward the sponsor when CSR was strongly associated with CSI (i.e., in the high CSR-CSI domain overlap) than when CSR was weakly associated with CSI (i.e., in the low CSR-CSI domain overlap). CSR perception of sponsor mediated the relationship between the CSR-CSI domain overlap and attitude toward the sponsor. The positive effect of the low CSR-CSI domain overlap was weakened when participants attributed firm-serving motives to the sponsor. The findings provided scientific contributions to sponsors with CSI.</jats:p>

Previous research in evolutionary psychology has highlighted the potential role of facial structures in explaining human behavior. The facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) was found to be associated with testosterone-driven behavioral tendencies like achievement drive, aggression, and sporting success. The current study aimed to replicate such relationships using real-world data (i.e., professional basketball players; <italic>N</italic> = 482). Achievement drive, aggression, and sporting success were operationalized as field-goal attempts (FGA), the number of fouls committed (Foul), and player performance rating (EFF), respectively. The results indicated that fWHR was significantly associated with FGA and EFF, controlling for minutes of play and body-mass-index. The same results were obtained for separate analyses focusing on outsider players. However, analyses of inside players demonstrated that fWHR was associated only with EFF. The current research further provides empirical evidence supporting the effects of fWHR on achievement drive and sporting successes, although the effect sizes are notably small.

<sec><title content-type="abstract-subheading">Purpose</title>This study aimed to examine the effects of two sponsorship purpose articulations (commercially oriented vs noncommercially oriented) on attitude toward the sponsor via sponsor–property fit and the moderating effect of the overlapped mission between the sponsor and the property.

</sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-subheading">Design/methodology/approach</title>A 2 (purpose articulation type: commercially oriented vs noncommercially oriented) × 2 (mission overlap articulation condition: present vs absent) between-subjects experimental design with a control condition was employed with student sample (<italic>n</italic> = 171). The moderated mediation model was tested using Hayes' PROCESS macro model 8.

</sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-subheading">Findings</title>The commercially oriented purpose articulation did not improve sponsor–property fit as much as the noncommercially oriented purpose articulation, resulting in less favorable attitudes toward the sponsor. When the mission overlap was simultaneously articulated, the less positive effects of the commercially oriented purpose articulation were weaker.

</sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-subheading">Practical implications</title>The findings provided incongruent sponsors with insights on mixed articulation strategies with sponsorship purposes and the overlapped mission.

</sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-subheading">Originality/value</title>This study extends previous research by presenting the first understanding of the different processes in which two sponsorship purpose articulations developed attitudes toward the sponsor via sponsor–property fit and by investigating the moderating effect of the simultaneously articulated mission overlap on the processes.

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Mass sport participation has received considerable attention in the recent sport management literature. However, little is known about sport spectatorship as an outcome of sports mega-events (SMEs). This is the first study to use cross-cultural analysis to examine the relationship between the 2002 Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup Korea/Japan and current football spectatorship in the host countries. In the context of SMEs, this study uses the psychological construct of nostalgia as a mediator to identify the relationship with spectatorship. Data from 416 and 408 respondents from South Korea and Japan, respectively, were collected through online surveys and analysed cross-culturally using Hayes’ PROCESS macro model 4. We find that the nostalgia evoked by the 2002 World Cup has positively influenced the host nations’ current football spectatorship. While this SME has a strong impact on evoking nostalgia, the effect of nostalgia on spectator behaviour is significant, yet comparatively weak.

<p>This study aimed to demonstrate empirically the influence of brand attributes regarding professional baseball teams on benefits and attitudes of residents according to customer-based brand equity (Keller, 1993). This study also examined the influence of residents' benefits and attitudes on team attachment. An internet research company was used to conduct an online survey to collect data from residents who had attended at least one home game during the 2013-2015 seasons in six cities where Pacific League teams were based. The results of the structural equation modeling showed the relations among attributes, benefits, and attitudes were different from Keller's (1993) concepts. In terms of the relations between benefits and attachment, symbolic benefit influenced attachment, although experiential benefit did not. Nor was there a significant relation between attitude and attachment. Further, the study discussed the findings and their theoretical and practical implications.</p>

© 2018, © 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. Research on women’s football is still, especially in Asia, scarce. The purpose of this research has been to investigate the underlying points of attachment of women’s football spectators and how these influence future behaviour. The points of attachment scale–drawing on social identity theory–developed previously has been modified for the research setting to detect whether they are general determinants or country-specific indicators. Research was conducted in two countries, namely Japan and Germany. Surveys were conducted at two friendlies of the national team in each country (Japan: n = 607; Germany: n = 597). Attachment with the team, coach and women’s sport were defining overall attachment best. Intention to attend matches of the national team was significantly predicted by football attachment and previously attended games, while intention to attend matches of the league was significantly predicted by attachment with the coach and attended league games in the past.

<p>It is critical for sport management researchers to comprehend the unique aspects of products provided by sport organizations. The present paper, including two studies, attempted to clarify the product attributes of professional sport clubs in consideration of competitive relations with other products. The first study employed literature reviews and conceptual approaches, whereas the second study used quantitative data to examine the attributes empirically. Using the following three perspectives; relationships with products in the same categories, industries to belong, and benefits to provide, the first study identified several product attributes of sport clubs that do not apply to common understanding in privious studies on management. The second study clarified distinctive benefits of spectating games (e.g., excitement and vicarious achievement), which were different from the benefits offered by other leisure activities. It was also found that consumers highly involved in a product (i.e., spectating a game) were likely to obtain various benefits.</p>

<p>In sport management, there are few studies that have paid its attention to sport involvement among spectators. Thus, examining sport involvement to understand the sport consumption behavior of spectators is important. The purposes of this study are (1) to provide evidence of the reliability, construct validity, and hierarchical structure of the proposed spectator involvement scale and (2) to examine the relationships of spectator involvement with several outcome variables. We analyzed a sample of 892 spectators at professional soccer and baseball games in Japan. The results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated the reliability and validity of the spectator involvement scale which consisted of five factors. The findings of structural equation modeling supported the relationship between spectator involvement and the outcome variables.</p>

Objective: Using a fitness club is one of the forms of leisure activity. The benefits individuals seek in using their free time are related to their choices of activities during leisure time. For the purpose of obtaining data which are useful for the promotion of the utilization of fitness clubs, we aimed to investigate the relationship between the benefit factors sought in leisure time and the fitness club experiences of individuals. <BR>Methods: Data from a &ldquo;survey for the purpose of ensuring that the value of fitness clubs is correctly communicated to consumers&rdquo; was utilized. The subjects of the analysis comprised 1,023 people, among whom 506 had no experience using fitness clubs, and 517 had experience using fitness clubs. Benefits sought during leisure time were measured using a leisure-time-benefit scale. A logistic regression analysis was conducted with the presence or absence of fitness club membership experience as the object variable and items measuring awareness regarding leisure-related benefits as the explanatory variables.<BR>Results: Among those who responded to a question that enquired about &ldquo;engaging in activities for the sake of one&rsquo; s health&rdquo; and the benefits of leisure time, the multivariable adjusted odds ratio regarding whether people who had fitness club experience for those who answered &ldquo;this applies to me,&rdquo; taking the people who answered either &ldquo;this does not apply to me&rdquo; or &ldquo;this neither particularly applies nor particularly does not apply to me&rdquo; as a reference, was 2.13. Additionally, the adjusted odds ratio in relation to a question about &ldquo;engaging in activities along with other people&rdquo; was 1.37.<BR>Conclusion: There is a higher tendency for people who have used a fitness club to seek &ldquo;engaging in activities to maintain one&rsquo; s health&rdquo; and &ldquo;engaging in activities with people&rdquo; as a benefit of their leisure time, compared with people who have not used a fitness club.

<p>The purpose of this study was to compare the Pacific League baseball teams in terms of the brand associations that consumers have with team attributes, benefits, and attitudes. This paper assessed the brand attributes using qualitative data with free associations, and benefits and attitudes using quantitative data. An internet survey of local residents living in each of the six teams' hometowns was conducted. A total of 1,967 free associations were obtained from 915 valid samples, and then categorized into 15 groups. Consumer benefits consisted of "Symbolic benefits" and "Experiential benefits." Consumer attitudes were assessed by "Like and Dislike." The One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that the "Symbolic benefits" (F (5, 909) = 20.15, p <.001), "Experiential benefits" (F (5, 909) = 9.12, p <.001), and "Attitudes" (F (5, 909) = 7.09, p <.001) were significantly different across teams. The comparison of associations among teams is discussed.</p>

<p>Understanding spectators' perspectives towards a sports competition is one of the major marketing issues in professional sport management. The purposes of this study are (1) to develop a scale to measure spectators' involvement in athletic elements of figure skating which can be deemed as the core product, (2) to examine the relationships of such involvement with antecedent variables and consequent variables, and (3) to examine involvement in athletic elements by the difference in gender of a player supporting. We analyzed a sample of 478 spectators at the 2013 NHK Trophy Grand Prix of Figure Skating. The results of confirmatory factor analyses revealed that athletic elements consisted of technical and aesthetic dimensions. Furthermore, the findings indicated that spectators' involvement had significant relationships with their knowledge regarding figure skating as well as consequent variables such as their intention to support a specific athlete and spectating behavior. This observation could significantly contribute to the development of marketing strategies for figure skating events.</p>

The purpose of this study is to examine the concept of community-based management (CBM) and to elucidate the influential factors formulating the strategies for developing the fan base of professional baseball teams. Semi-structured interviews were conducted among staff members of four Pacific League teams on having regional team names and adopting &ldquo;community-based management&rdquo; or &ldquo;regional outreach activities&rdquo; in their team philosophy. Influenced by the reorganization of the Nippon Professional Baseball organization, the Pacific League teams have focused on a specific community or region, rather than the entire nation, for better management. Teams are concentrating on garnering customer loyalty from avid fan club members and repeat customers, and then trying to retain and attract customers while expanding the customer target area in their community. The community-based approach implies developing a bond between local residents and teams. Through this study, CBM is defined as &ldquo;developing consumers' attachment to and building their bond with a team through various local promotional or outreach activities within their specific area.&rdquo; There are two significant factors emerged that influence formulating the strategies for developing the fan base: (1) agreements between teams and stadium proprietors, and (2) relationships with local promotional vehicles such as local media companies and a railway company.<br>

The field of sport management has expanded rapidly, and now includes various aspects of sport industry. Researchers as well as practitioners in the sport business have provided various interpretations of the concept of sport management. However, the question &ldquo;what should be researched and taught in sport management&rdquo; remains unanswered. The present paper attempted to reexamine the concept of sport management in order to explain the significance of its existence as a science. In order to clarify what aspects of &ldquo;sport&rdquo; could be the target in the field of sport management, the author reviewed the structure of the sport industry and concluded that producing sport itself(i.e., sport activities) is the center of the sport industry. The uniqueness of sport product was also examined bacause it would clarify peculiar features of sport management. As discussed in the paper, sport management can be defined as &ldquo;the management of business related to the production and provision of participant sport and/or spectator sport.&rdquo;

Consumer motives and level of identification with professional baseball teams in the United States and Japan were measured and compared. Significant differences were found on nine of the ten motives measured. Entertainment and motives associated with the core product (game aesthetics, players' skills, and the drama of games) were rated the highest by consumers in the United States. Entertainment and the opportunity to enjoy games with family and friends were rated highest by Japanese consumers. A significant difference was found relative to team identification; the highest percentage of Japanese baseball consumers had low team identification, while the largest percentage of United States baseball consumers reported high levels of team identification. Sport organisations seeking to reach a global audience are advised to better understand the motives influencing consumption of a sport product across cultures, and the degree to which a consumer may identify with a particular product. Copyright © 2009, Inderscience Publishers.

The purpose of this study is to indicate career patterns and career orientations of youth players in J-league clubs. Questionnaires were distributed to 122 players over different four J-league clubs resulting in 100 (81.9%) usable data. In order to identify the usable participants, we used longitudinal method for the players' career patterns and comparison analysis of player's motives and career orientations for J-league youth clubs. The main results of our study were as follows: ●In the J-league youth clubs, 55.6% of players came from J-league junior youth clubs, whereas 31.3% of players came from other clubs, and 13.1% of players came from junior high school team. ●The comparison analysis of motives for J-league youth clubs showed no significant findings among three groups from junior high school, except for those that "used be a fan of the team." ●84.0% of the players of J-league youth clubs would like to play for a top team in the J-league in near the future and approximately 70% of players want to find a job related to soccer (e.g., coach, team staff, and so on).

Following the increase of interests in participating and spectating sports and the enlargementof the sport industry, education programs with respect to sport have been expandingamong Japanese universities and colleges. Especially, undergraduate programs regardingsport management and sport business have been rapidly growing in the last few years. In2007, there were 43 universities and colleges containing sport management or sport businessprograms. Not only colleges of physical education and sport, but also colleges and departmentswith regard to business, economy, and management have been building such programs. Whilethis new academic field will continue developing, there are several critical problems in educationprograms. It is necessary to establish a standardized sport management curricula and tofacilitate the increase of expertise in sport management education. Limited employmentopportunities in the sport industry also makes sport management education programs difficultto succeed.

The scale of international sporting events, such as the Olympic Games and FIFA WorldCup, has been expanded year after year. In order to host an international mega sportingevent, the host city has to be a developed one. In addition, a large quantity of managerialresources including human resources, material resources, and financial resources arenecessary for the great success of the events. The present paper examines issues ofprocurement of managerial resources of international sporting events. Among diverseresources, the author focused on sport volunteers as human resources, sport facility asmaterial resources, and sponsorship as the way of fund raising. Regarding volunteers, eventmanagers need to effectively recruit and train them. Potentially volunteers'contributions areworth enormous sums of money. Therefore, the effective use of volunteers enables managersto cut down expenses. To host international sporting events, host cities have to havesupersized sport facilities. The problems, however, occur after the events. Host cities need toconsider the operations and finances of such facilities post-event. Sponsorship is one of themajor ways of fund raising of international sporting events equal to broadcasting right salesand ticket sales. To make sponsorship contracts, event managers need to propose diversebenefits to sponsor corporations in sporting events. Since these issues are associated withmanagement, diverse event management encompassing broad aspects leads to effectiveprocurement of managerial resources in international sporting events.