Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales are widely distributed in southeastern Mongolia. Due to the high organic carbon content of oil shale, many geochemical studies and petroleum exploration have been conducted. Although most of the oil shales are considered to be Early Cretaceous in age, a recent study reveals that some were deposited in the Middle Jurassic. The present study aims at establishing depositional ages and characteristics of the Jurassic and Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in Mongolia. The Lower Cretaceous Shinekhudag Formation is about 250 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale and dolomite. The Middle Jurassic Eedemt Formation is about 150 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale, dolomitic marl, and siltstone. The alternations of shale and dolomite in both formations were formed by lake level changes, reflecting precipitation changes. Shales were deposited in the center of a deep lake during highstand, while dolomites were formed by primary precipitation during lowstand. Based on the radiometric age dating, the Shinekhudag Formation was deposited between 123.8 ±2.0 Ma and 118.5 ±0.9 Ma of the early Aptian. The Eedemt Formation was deposited at around 165–158 Ma of Callovian–Oxfordian. The calculated sedimentation rate of the Shinekhudag Formation is between 4.7 ±2.6 cm/ky and 10.0 ±7.6 cm/ky. Shales in the Shinekhudag Formation show micrometer-scale lamination, consisting of algal organic matter and detrital clay mineral couplets. Given the average thickness of micro-laminae and calculated sedimentation rate, the micro-lamination is most likely of varve origin. Both Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales were deposited in intracontinental basins in the paleo-Asian continent. Tectonic processes and basin evolution basically controlled the deposition of these oil shales. In addition, enhanced precipitation under humid climate during the early Aptian and the Callovian–Oxfordian was another key factor inducing the widespread oil shale deposition in Mongolia.

This paper reviews the sedimentological, geochemical and stratigraphic characteristics of the Paleoproterozoic Chaibasa and Dhalbhum Formations (the Singhbhum Group) of eastern India and presents a comparative study with other Paleoproterozoic lithostratigraphic units of India. Both the formations are entirely siliciclastic and deformed and metamorphosed, generally at greenschist to upper amphibolite facies. The older Chaibasa Formation consists of sandstone, shale and sandstone-shale interbanded (heterolithic) facies. It conformably over-lies the Late Archean-Paleoproterozoic Dhanjori Formation of terrestrial (alluvial fan-fluvial) origin. The Lower Chaibasa Member formed in a marine setting; the shale and heterolithic facies formed in a continental shelf setting below and above the storm wave base, respectively. The sandstone fades formed in a subtidal setting during sea level fall. In contrast, the Upper Chaibasa Member formed in a shallow-marine setting; both the shale and heterolithic facies formed above the storm wave base.
In significant contrast, the overlying Dhalbhum Formation is dominated by finer clastics with much lower proportion of sandstones. The base of the terrestrial Dhalbhum Formation is a sequence boundary (unconformity). Sedimentary facies analysis clearly shows two broad facies association of terrestrial origin (fluvial and aeolian). The aeolian facies association overlies the fluvial facies association. The Dhalbhum sandstones show typical REE pattern of quartz dilution with lower concentrations compared to the mudstones. The Dhalbhum finer clastics mimic typical REE patterns resembling abundances in the continental crust. Rare earth element plots display a good match with Post-Archean Australian Shales (PAAS) including similar concentrations, steep negative slope for LREEs, negative Eu anomaly, and nearly flat HREES. The Singhbhum Paleoproterozoic succession is devoid of both chemical sediments and Paleoproterozoic glacial deposits in contrast to neighboring cratons. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The spinicaudatan Neodiestheria Chen is an important component of the diverse Early Cretaceous Yanjiestheria fauna in eastern Asia. Examination under a scanning electron microscope of newly collected and well-preserved specimens of Neodiestheria dalaziensis Chen from the Albian Dalazi Formation of Zhixin, Jilin Province, north-eastern China, has revealed morphological features of the carapace not recognized previously, namely that puncta are not only evenly distributed on growth bands near the umbo and gradually merge into a punctate fine reticulation and dense radial lirae on each growth band in the upper-middle part of the carapace, but also occur on growth lines and within the lumina of a fine reticulum, and between radial lirae on growth bands in the middle and lower parts of the carapace. Growth bands in anteroventral, ventral and posteroventral parts of the carapace are also ornamented with transversely elongate large pits (depressions) surrounded by swellings, appearing as a large reticulum superimposed over fine reticulation and radial lirae. These ontogenetically developing morphological patterns on the growth bands of the juvenile stage of the carapace indicate that Neodiestheria is closely related phylogenetically to Triglypta Wang. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Geochemical data of marine mud sediments collected from the Esaro, Neto and Corigliano canyons in the northern Ionian Sea (southern Italy) were investigated in order to characterize canyon bathymetry types. Mud sample compositions analyzed by the principal component analysis (PCA) provided useful information for the morphology of the depositional area of the northern Ionian Sea. The use of sediment geochemical data as well as transportation distance and depth as input variables for PCA enabled the extraction of following latent variables: basin depth (PC1), sedimentation rate (PC2) and transportation distance (PC3). Based on these results, we further developed geochemical indices that can estimate basin depth (F1), sedimentation rate (F2) and transportation distance (F3); these functions can be solely calculated from the elemental concentration data of the mud samples. Since these F1, F2 and F3 functions are mathematically independent variables, they facilitate more precise characterization of individual canyon types. That is, the Esaro Canyon is regarded as a sediment-starved deep canyon characterized by a single source area; the Neto Canyon can be seen as a deeply sloped submarine apron system and sediments are mainly supplied by the sediment gravity flows; the Corigliano Canyon is characterized by multiple sources and moderately sloped system, whose sediments disperse mainly by traction currents. These interpretations are concordant with the basin bathymetry of the studied area. Therefore, F1, F2 and F3 functions might be applicable to any oceanic basins.

The Active X-ray Spectrometer (AXS) is considered as one of the scientific payload candidates for a future Japanese mission, SELENE-2. The AXS consists of pyroelectric X-ray generators and a Silicon Drift Detector to conduct X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) on the Moon to measure major elements: Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Ti, and Fe; minor elements: Na, K, F, S, Cr and Mn; and the trace element Ni depending on their concentration. Some factors such as roughness, grain size and porosity of sample, and the geometry of X-ray incidence, emission and energy will affect the XRF measurements precision. Basic studies on the XRF are required to develop the AXS. In this study, fused samples were used to make homogeneous samples free from the effect of grain size and porosity. Experimental and numerical studies on the XRF were conducted to evaluate the effects from incidence and emission angles and surface roughness. Angle geometry and surface roughness will be optimized for the design of the AXS on future missions from the results of the experiment and the numerical simulation. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A method that integrates elliptic Fourier and principal component analysis is a new development in the analysis of the shapes of sand grains. However, conventional elliptic Fourier and principal component analysis based on the variance-covariance matrix of the elliptic Fourier results can determine only the form of sand grains, and fails to quantify fine-scale boundary smoothness of grains. In this study, sand grains from glacial, fluvial, foreshore and aeolian environments were analysed using both elliptic Fourier and principal component analysis and an extension of elliptic Fourier and principal component analysis based on the correlation matrix to extract information on grain form (macroscopic) and grain boundary smoothness (microscopic) separately. Conventional elliptic Fourier and principal component analysis based on the variance-covariance matrix produces macroscopic particle shape descriptors, such as the elongation index and bump indices. These indices indicate that sand grains exposed to subaqueous transportation (fluvial and foreshore) have forms that are more elongated than those exposed to subaerial transportation (aeolian dunes). However, elliptic Fourier and principal component analysis based on the correlation matrix is, in addition, able to extract microscopic particle features, which can be interpreted in terms of a boundary smoothness index. The boundary smoothness index indicates that the surfaces of glacial grains are the most rugged, whereas the surfaces of aeolian grains are the smoothest. On bivariate plots of the boundary smoothness and elongation indices, samples from fluvial, foreshore, aeolian and glacial environments cluster in discrete regions. In addition, the analysis reveals that glacial grains are exposed to different morphological maturation pathways than those from fluvial, foreshore and aeolian environments.

In significant contrast to other cratonic blocks of India, the Singhbhum cratonic successions record continuous depositional record from the Palaeoarchaean to Mesoproterozoic. Although the sedimentary facies characteristics and mode of stratigraphic sequence building of the Dhanjori and Chaibasa Formations are well known, sedimentary geochemistry, provenance and tectonic milieu of deposition of these two formations are hitherto unknown. The current manuscript presents geochemical and Sm-Nd isotopic data from the Dhanjori and Chaibasa Formations for the first time and combine previous sedimentological data with the goal to expand the framework for understanding the depositional and tectonic setting of these two formations. The Sm-Nd isotopic data for the Chaibasa clastics is unambiguous with respect to provenance. Average epsilon(Nd) (t = 2.2 Ga) = -0.8 +/- 1.0 and average Nd model age (TDM) = 2.51 +/- 0.08 Ga with average Sm-147/Nd-144 ratios = 0.1114 +/- 0.0041 for phyllites and quartzites indicate an extremely homogeneous source signature consistent with a late Archaean "juvenile" crustal provenance, possibly a dominantly upper crustal provenance. The Sm-Nd isotopic data from the older Dhanjori Formation also indicate broadly similar provenance as comparable lithologies in the younger Chaibasa Formation. Our Sm-Nd isotopic data is entirely consistent with the previous sedimentological data and confirms a terrestrial, riftdominated tectonic setting for the Dhanjori Formation (proximal sources, poorly mixed provenance) and a marginal marine to offshore setting for the more homogeneous Nd isotopic signature of the Chaibasa Formation (distal sources, well mixed provenance). (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The Singhbhum Craton in eastern India preserves a depositional record from the Palaeo-Mesoarchaean to the Mesoproterozoic. Herein, we have summarized the Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic supracrustal record of the Singhbhum Craton, discussed tectonosedimentary processes and discriminated Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic global and craton-specific events. The late Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic supracrustal record of the Singhbhum Craton is limited. It includes evidence for high continental freeboard conditions during 2.6- 2.1 Ga in the form of terrestrial deposits (alluvial fan-fluvial) of the Dhanjori Formation. This was followed by a major transgression and a transition to the relatively deeper-water shelf to shallow intertidal environments recorded by the Chaibasa Formation. A long hiatus ensued before deposition of the Dhalbhum Formation and conformably overlying Dalma and Chandil formations, suggesting continued high continental freeboard during 2.2-1.6 Ga. In significant contrast to the craton-specific Dhanjori Formation volcanism, the 1.7- 1.6 Ga plume-related Dalma volcanism was probably part of a global tectonothermal event.

Chemical and mineralogical analyses of the Triassic to lowermost Jurassic mudstones from continental redbeds outcropping in the Internal Domains of the Betic-Rifian and Calabria-Peloritani chains have been used to infer the relationships between paleoclimatic conditions and paleoweathering processes during rifting of a continental crust block that finally detached from adjoining western Tethyan realms to form an independent microplate (Mesomediterranean Microplate) from Jurassic to lower Miocene time. The studied mudstone samples come from Middle Triassic and Upper Triassic beds of the Saladilla Formation (both in the Betic Cordillera and in the Rif), whereas the Calabria-Peloritani Arc studied mudstones come from Upper Triassic to lowermost Jurassic beds (both in the Sila and Longi Taormina Units). Major and trace element concentrations, based on the massbalance calculation relative to the upper continental crust, show negative values both in Gibraltar and Calabria-Peloritani Arcs, implying that mudstone formation in the Early Mesozoic involved moderate to intense continental paleoweathering of the crust. In particular, CaO, Na2O, MgO, Sr, Ba, Fe2O3, MnO and transition metal elements (V, Cr, Co and Ni) are more depleted in the Triassic to Upper Jurassic samples of the Calabria-Peloritani samples than in the Middle to Upper Triassic Betic-Rifian samples, and suggest an increase of continental paleoweathering in the Mediterranean region from the Triassic to the Jurassic. In addition enrichment in SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, 1(20 and incompatible elements in the Calabria-Peloritani Arc mudstones indicates sediment recycling effects that gradually increase from the Triassic to Jurassic time. The hinterland paleoweathering and sediment recycling effects have been mathematically distinguished using principal component analysis (PC1 is a measure of paleoweathering rate mainly due to humidity (positive values) against aridity (negative values), whereas PC2 corresponds to the extent of sediment recycling). The results strongly indicate that humidity had increased from the Triassic to the Jurassic and that the depositional environments in Calabria-Peloritani Arc were probably more suitable for sediment recycling. These seasonal climate alternations corresponding to an increase in paleoclimatic humidity that favored paleoweathering conditions and recycling processes. These results are also confirmed by the mineralogical data, which show a higher abundance of kaolinite, typical of warm-humid conditions, in the Calabria-Peloritani mudstones than in those of the Betic Cordillera and the Rif. Furthermore, the comparison among geochemical weathering index values of the studied samples and of recent soils from different climatic zones likely suggests a tropical rainforest climate in the studied area during the Triassic to the lowermost Jurassic. (c) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The Active X-ray Spectrometer (AXS) for the Japanese SELENE-2 rover has been proposed for elemental analysis on the lunar surface to measure the major elements: Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Ti, and Fe; the minor elements, Na, K, P, S, Cl, Cr, and Mn and the trace element Ni, all depending on their concentrations at a landing site. The elemental data of the AXS allow us to not only classification but also quantification of surface rocks on the Moon. The AXS is a compact low-weight instrument for elemental analysis based on the principle of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry using an X-ray spectrometer and two (four) pyroelectric crystals as X-Ray Generators (XRG). This paper introduces the current status of the pre-project to develop an AXS for the SELENE-2 Rover including the investigations on the generation of X-ray flux of the XRG, required surface roughness for the XRS measurement, and a thermal design of the AXS.

Two spinicaudatan species, Triglypta eedemtensis Li sp. nov. and Dundgobiestheria mandalgobiensis Li gen. et sp. nov., are described on the basis of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging of newly collected specimens from paper-thin laminated black shale of the Eedemt Formation exposed at the Eedemt locality in the Khootiin Khotgor coal mine region of Dundgobi Province in southeast Mongolia. Triglypta eedemtensis is ornamented mainly with puncta and a punctate fine reticulum; radial lirae occur only on two or three growth bands near the venter. The small spinicaudatan Triglypta is a common component of the Middle Jurassic Euestheria ziliujingensis fauna and Sinokontikia fauna, and is a typical taxon in the Middle Jurassic lacustrine sequences of northern Hebei and the Junggar and Turpan basins of the Xinjiang Autonomous District of China; however, it does not occur in stratigraphically higher units elsewhere. Therefore, the age of the Eedemt Formation should be considered Middle Jurassic rather than Early Cretaceous. The Eedemt Formation is much older than the Early Cretaceous Shinekhudag Formation in the Shine Khudag area of southeast Mongolia.

Fourier and fractal analysis methods have allowed new advancements in determining the shape of sand grains. However, the full quantification of grain shapes has not as yet been accomplished, partly due to the difficulties in interpreting the results of Fourier analysis, and partly because fractal dimension changes are somewhat dependent on the measuring techniques used. This study focuses on the application of a method that integrates elliptic Fourier and principal component analysis methods (elliptic Fourier-PCA). This method reduces the number of extracted variables and enables a visual inspection of the results of Fourier analysis, an approach that facilitates the understanding of the sedimentological significances of the results obtained using this technique. The application of this Elliptic Fourier-PCA technique to sand grains collected from fluvial, beach, and glacial environments produced particle descriptors such as elongation index (EF1) and multiple bump indices (EF2, EF3, and EF2 + EF3). These descriptors indicate that glacial, beach, and fluvial sediments contain particles with shapes similar to circles, ellipses, and cylinders, respectively. A modified pixel dilation (mPD) method was used for fractal dimension analysis, primarily as a simple model experiment proved that the mPD method enabled better detection of the degree of surface smoothness than traditional boxcounting methods. Mean (FD) and coefficient of variation of fractal dimension (FDCv) values decrease from glacial to fluvial and beach particles, indicating that glacial particles retain rugged surfaces, whereas beach particles have smoother and more even surfaces due to increased abrasion. Of the grain shape indices used during this study, the FD and EF1 variables are key shape proxies that enable differentiation between sedimentary environments, with an FD-EF1 plot allowing the effective discrimination of particles derived from fluvial, beach, and glacial environments.

This study re-examines the depositional age, lithostratigraphy, and distribution of Mesozoic sedimentary formations in the section of the Kurosegawa Belt that outcrops in the Toba area, eastern Shima Peninsula, Mie Prefecture, Japan. In this area, Mesozoic successions are divided into the Jurassic Shiranezaki Formation and the Cretaceous Matsuo Group. We collected Bajocian and Callovian–Oxfordian age radiolarians from the Shiranezaki Formation and Valanginian–Barremian age radiolarians from the Matsuo Group. The lithology and age constraints provided by these collected radiolarians suggest that part of the previously defined Matsuo Group actually forms part of the Shiranezaki Formation, with this formation being stratigraphically overlain by the Matsuo Group across a disconformity.

In analyses of compositional data, it is important to select a suitable unchanging component as a reference to detect the behavior of a single variable in isolation. This paper introduces two tests for detecting the unchanging component, based on a new approach that utilizes the coefficient of variation of component ratios. That is, the coefficient of variation of a compositional ratio is subject to change when the unchanging component is switched between the denominator and numerator, and the coefficient of variation tends to be small when the unchanging component occurs as the denominator against any arbitrary components (Test 1). In addition, the ratio of the component pair that gives the lowest coefficient of variation is most likely to represent the two unchanging components (Test 2). However, Tests 1 and 2 are not necessary and sufficient conditions for uniquely finding the unchanging component. To verify the effectiveness of the tests, 500 artificial datasets were analyzed and the results suggest that the tests are able to identify the unchanging component, although Test 1 underperforms when the dataset includes a component with skewness greater than 0.5, and Test 2 fails when the dataset includes components with a correlation coefficient greater than 0.75. These defects can be overcome by interpreting the two test results in a complementary manner. The proposed tests provide powerful yet simple criteria for identifying the unchanging component in compositional data; however, the reliability of this approach needs to be assessed in further studies.

It is important to determine the true chemical and mineralogical compositions of lunar rock samples unaffected by the space weathering effects. However, it would be difficult to measure space weathering effects by the SELENE-2 mission. Therefore, we propose an alternative index based on the major element composition, which allows in-situ quantification of space weathering effects.

The Jehol Biota from lower Cretaceous deposits in northern China provides an important record of terrestrial fauna and flora, including feathered dinosaurs and one of the earliest angiosperms. This biota underwent three development phases, with a relatively limited biodiversity in the early phase that rapidly diversified in the middle phase. This study analyzes the conditions of terrestrial paleoweathering during the lower Cretaceous as inferred from the geochemistry of mudstones, with the aim of assessing the role of paleoclimate change as a background factor that led to the phased evolution of the Jehol Biota. The analysis focuses on the Dabeigou and Dadianzi formations of Hebei Province, northern China, which record the early and middle phases of the Jehol Biota, respectively. These fluviolacustrine sequences can be lithologically divided into lower and upper units. Geochemical weathering indices (e.g., W, Sigma REE [total amount of rare earth elements], and Delta W) show a significant increase from the lower to the upper unit, indicating enhanced weathering of the hinterland. Based on a comparison with the W values of recent soils that developed under various climates, the obtained increase in W can be interpreted as indicating temporal increases in temperature and humidity. Therefore, the increase in hinterland weathering from the lower to the upper unit was possibly induced by a shift in the paleoclimate to a more temperate and humid state. The timing of this change in paleoclimate closely coincides with a shift in the Jehol Biota to an evolved phase. Consequently, this preliminary result indicates that paleoclimate change in terrestrial regions of northern China might have contributed to the development of the Jehol Biota.

Chemical weathering indices are useful tools in characterizing weathering profiles and determining the extent of weathering. However, the predictive performance of the conventional indices is critically dependent on the composition of the unweathered parent rock. To overcome this limitation, the present paper introduces an alternative statistical empirical index of chemical weathering that is extracted by the principal component analysis (PCA) of a large dataset derived from unweathered igneous rocks and their weathering profiles. The PCA analysis yields two principal components (PC1 and PC2), which capture 39.23% and 35.17% of total variability, respectively. The extent of weathering is reflected by variation along PC1, primarily due to the loss of Na2O and CaO during weathering. In contrast, PC2 is the direction along which the projections of unweathered felsic, intermediate and mafic igneous rocks appear to be best discriminated; therefore, PC1 and PC2 represent independent latent variables that correspond to the extent of weathering and the chemistry of the unweathered parent rock. Subsequently, PC1 and PC2 were then mapped onto a ternary diagram (MFW diagram). The M and F vertices characterize mafic and felsic rock source, respectively, while the W vertex identifies the degree of weathering of these sources, independent of the chemistry of the unweathered parent rock.
The W index has a number of significant properties that are not found in conventional weathering indices. First, the W index is sensitive to chemical changes that occur during weathering because it is based on eight major oxides, whereas most conventional indices are defined by between two and four oxides. Second, the W index provides robust results even for highly weathered sesquioxide-rich samples. Third, the W index is applicable to a wide range of felsic, intermediate and mafic igneous rock types. Finally, the MFW diagram is expected to facilitate provenance analysis of sedimentary rocks by identifying their weathering trends and thereby enabling a backward estimate of the composition of the unweathered source rock. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

One of the intractable problems in provenance analysis is the hydraulic sorting effect and resultant mineralogical heterogeneity in coarse- and fine-grained sediments which conceals provenance characteristics. The present study uses factor analysis to address geochemical responses to the sorting effect and provenance of Late Mesozoic sediments in the Nagato Basin, SW Japan. Factor analysis has proven useful for comprehending geochemical gradients between coarse- and fine-grained sediments. In the present example, compositional differences are based on varying proportions of quartz, plagioclase, chrome spinel, authigenic minerals and phyllosilicates. The contrasting behaviors of these minerals during the depositional stage resulted in the systematic fractionation Of SiO2/Al2O3, Na2O/K2O and Cr/Ba. Sandstones and mudstones exhibit an array of compositions in SiO2/Al2O3-Na2O/K2O and SiO2/Al2O3--Cr/Ba diagrams, the ranges of which reflect compositional variations due to the sorting effect. Sediments of different provenance exhibit distinctive mineral arrays and can be discriminated simply by reading the gradients of the continua. Therefore, this kind of data management concurrently quantifies the sorting effect and allows an estimation of the original source material. The SiO2/Al2O3-Na2O/ K2O diagram is particularly useful for scrutinizing igneous and mature continental provenances, while the SiO2/Al2O3-Cr/ Ba diagram ascertains contributions from mafic sources. This investigative approach delineates a systematic provenance transition within the Nagato Basin: a serpentinite melange provenance in the early Early Jurassic, a magmatic arc in the late Early to middle Middle Jurassic and a continental interior in the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous. The provenance changed by the direct input of mature continental material into the Nagato Basin, which resulted from dissection of the volcanic arc. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.

Haugia cf. variabilis (d'Orbigny) has been found in the upper part of the Idenohana Formation in the Uminoura area, Kumamoto Prefecture. This species is originally known from the Upper Toarcian H. variabilis Subzone of the Lytoceras jurense Zone in western Europe. This occurrence combined with our analyses of the lithofacies and sequence stratigraphy suggests that the Idenohana Formation is conformably overlain by the Kyodomari Formation. © by the Palaeontological Society of Japan.