The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has been varied, and while there was a clear upsurge in the use of technology in language and learning contexts during the worst lockdown periods, the long-term impact on technology usage remains to be seen. As has been widely noted, lockdowns forced teaching into remote modes, making technology indispensable. Many teachers found themselves struggling to use technologies with little or no experience or training, and often in spite of earlier resistance to using it. The affective barriers to using technology may have decreased somewhat, but other potential problems have arisen as well. There has generally been a narrow view about the effectiveness of technology use in language teaching and learning. During the pandemic, teaching often entailed using videoconferencing tools as a means of emulating face-to-face teaching, albeit inhibited by the limitations and the affordances of the technologies. While research into mobile learning prospered prior to the pandemic, long periods of lockdown saw them being used as little more than a backup for when other technologies experienced technical difficulties. In this paper, we discuss not only the often-cited positive effects of technology usage in language learning during COVID, but also the possible negative implications for how technology has come to be used and viewed by learners, teachers, and administrators. Suggestions for a potential way forward in this ‘aftermath’ of the pandemic are discussed, along with some guidelines for making the most of what we have learned about using technology for language learning in the future.

Second language education is a complex field that is continually evolving, shaped by the changes in teaching and learning contexts that have emerged over the past several decades. It would not be an exaggeration to say that these changes are predominantly driven by shifts in technology, shifts in educational approaches and philosophies, and shifts in societal and sociocultural perspectives, and each of them have brought with them different influences that have led second language education to where it is today. Amidst the numerous elements that contribute to its complexity, one factor that has become increasingly significant is social justice. This article provides an in-depth discussion on social justice in the context of second language teaching and learning, and how it has been impacted by technological developments, highlighting the affordances of technology and the importance of training to raise awareness of social justice issues in language education.

There is no doubt that technology has had an immense impact on the landscape of language learning and teaching, bringing shifts in the interactions among learners and teachers, the learning processes, and the learning environment. With various modalities used for communication as a result of advancements in technology, it comes as no surprise that the notion of communicative competence has also been influenced. The main thrust of this chapter is thus to explore the impact of technology upon communicative competence in terms of linguistic, pragmalinguistic, sociolinguistic, strategic, and discourse competences. Specifically, the chapter begins by examining the ways in which technology-mediated communication differs from face-to-face communication, drawing upon recent research conducted in the field of computer-assisted language learning. The subsequent sections look at how communicative competence has evolved in light of the changes brought upon by different technologies. Finally, this chapter will conclude with a discussion of future research directions on communicative competence, considering the ever-evolving nature of language education.

Mobile-assisted language learning has expanded beyond relatively humble beginnings of replicating computer-based activities assigned in formal language learning contexts, and it now often consists of a complex mix of formal and informal learning activities that take place at different times and places throughout learners’ daily lives. Decisions about what tools to use are often driven by the costs, choice of hardware, and the knowledge of what tools actually exist, and how these tools are then used will depend on learners’ skills, motivation, as well as their short- and long-term goals. Language learning no longer needs to be an activity that is separated from learners’ daily lifestyles, but can be an integral part of their lives in the long term. The complexities involved in understanding each individual learner’s own ecological context and how these ecologies shift over time will be discussed with an eye on optimising learning opportunities for learners that will keep them engaged in learning throughout their lives.

Mobile language learning is a field that brought with it a large amount of expectation and, to some degree, disappointment at the same time. Very few would doubt the potential of learning through mobile devices, given the fact that they provide access to text, images and video, as well as allowing learners to interact with other people through various communication and social networking tools. At the same time, problems continue to exist regarding the types of activities that are suitable for mobile devices given the physical characteristics of the screen and input and overcoming the general attitudes towards engaging in learning activities through mobile devices.

Studies investigating the use of mobile technologies when other options are available are still relatively rare in the literature, with the majority of studies requiring that learners use a particular technology, either using their own devices or devices provided by the institution. One exception to this was a study by Stockwell (2010) that examined how learners in Japan perceived the use of mobile phones for language learning and how willing they were to engage in the activities. This study, however, was conducted prior to the spread of smart phones and it focused exclusively on learners in Japan. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to replicate this study, but differed in two ways. First, although it was run in essentially the same environment as the original study, in the current study the majority of learners owned smart phones. Second, the same system was used not only in Japan but also with learners studying at a university in Taiwan. Data were collected through server logs, post-treatment surveys and semi-structured interviews. The results are discussed in terms of the ways in which learners engaged in the activities on their mobile phones, and the effect of the mobile platform on the time taken to complete the activities over the course of the semester. These results were correlated with those from the original 2010 study to identify the potential effect of the smart phone.

While problems such as small screens and inconvenient keypads have been pointed out by researchers (e. g., Thornton & Houser, 2002), we still have little knowledge of how the mobile platform affects the way in which activities are completed and how learners make decisions about using mobile phones. Stockwell (2007b) provided preliminary evidence that learners generally require more time to complete vocabulary activities and achieved slightly lower scores on mobile phones when compared to completing the same activities on desktop computers, but data in the study were limited. The current study examines 175 pre-intermediate learners of English who could choose to complete vocabulary activities on either a mobile phone or a desktop computer to identify the effect of the mobile platform. Data were collected from three cohorts of learners over a three-year period, and learner activity was analysed for the amount of time required to complete activities on both platforms and the scores they achieved for the activities. The results of the study are discussed in terms of how the platform affects learners' ability to complete tasks, whether continued usage contributes to improved performance or sustained usage of the mobile platform over time. Trends across the yearly cohorts were also identified.

The issue of teacher education in computer assisted language learning (CALL) has been receiving an increased amount of attention in the literature over the past few years, including as the focus of a recent book (Hubbard and Levy 2006). This attention is indicative of greater recognition of the importance of CALL practitioners having sufficient grounding in CALL theory and practice, as well as knowledge of what technologies are available to them in order to be able to effectively implement CALL in their specific language learning environments. While some institutions provide such training for their teachers (e.g. Leahy 2006), the reality is that only a small proportion of people who plan to use - or are already using - technologies in language learning contexts have access to this training
for the majority, the burden of learning how to best use CALL in the classroom falls upon the teachers themselves. This paper describes a procedure through which teachers may educate themselves regarding how to introduce CALL into their given language learning contexts. Teachers of English at a private university in Japan were given a two-hour seminar at the beginning of the semester outlining the considerations to be kept in mind when introducing technology into their learning environment. Data collected during and at the end of the semester reveal teachers' reflections on the procedure as well as on their own efforts to use technology for the first time. The results are discussed in terms of the challenges encountered by teachers in educating themselves to use CALL and the factors affecting their success.

While the use of mobile devices for language learning has sparked the interest of an increasing number of researchers in recent years (e.g., Aizawa &amp
Kiernan, 2003
Thornton &amp
Houser, 2005), our knowledge of learners' pReferences for the mobile platform and their usage patterns remains limited. Are learners prepared to use mobile phones for performing language learning activities, or is there still a preference for desktop computer environments? Do learners make attempts to use mobile phones and then opt for a desktop computer instead? When and where do those learners who choose to use mobile phones use them, and why do they choose them? The current study investigated 75 learners of English at a Japanese university who were assigned vocabulary learning activities which they could choose to complete on either a mobile phone or desktop computer. It sought to determine their intentions to use mobile phones for language learning if other options were available, to compare this with their actual usage patterns, and to determine when and why learners used mobile phones. Learner attitudes and pReferences were elicited through a post-survey, and usage patterns were determined through analysis of detailed server logs. The results are discussed in terms of the readiness of learners to undertake mobile-based language learning activities, and the issues having an effect on the establishment of the mobile phone as a language learning tool. © 2008, European Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning. All rights reserved.

Mobile learning has long been identified as one of the natural directions in which CALL is expected to move, and as smaller portable technologies become less expensive, lighter and more powerful, they have the potential to become a more integral part of language learning courses as opposed to the more supplemental role often assigned to computer labs. Mobile phones have been the topic of a number of recent studies, including for learning pragmatic phrases via mobile email, and as electronic flash cards. With the development of mobile systems that can access the Internet, more sophisticated applications which allow the use of databases and interactive web content have been made possible. The current study describes one such application, investigating the use of a prototype mobile-based intelligent vocabulary tutor system by learners in an advanced EFL class. Learners used the tutor to complete vocabulary activities in a variety of task formats through either their mobile phone or through a computer, and the system kept logs of all access to the system. A profile of each learner was created in terms of the vocabulary that they had difficulty with, and presented these items to the learners more frequently than items that were less likely to cause learners problems. Learner access logs to the vocabulary activities and the learner profiles were analysed, and a survey was administered to learners at the completion of the project. The results are discussed in terms of learner usage patterns and learner perspectives regarding each platform.

The present study examines the use of EFL CALL materials in a limited self-study environment by students enrolled at Kumamoto University (the facilities were available from 9 am. to 5 p.m. weekdaysi, and evaluates this environment from the perspective of language development, and from the learners perspective towards the environment. Student attitudes were elicited from questionnaires asking how the students themselves felt about the environment, and how they felt that it could be improved. The feedback from the students suggested that the ovenchelming majority of learners found the CALL environment useful, but that they would prefer to have more access to the materials from both on and off campus. Our analysis of the CALL laboratory usage revealed that the first-year students spent more time using the CALL facilities than the second-year students and the difference found in CALL usage between first-year and second-year students was statistically signficant English language proficiency was measured by an English proficiency test called G-TELP at both pre- and post-treatment stages, and the results of the G-TELP analysis demonstrated significant gains in grammar reading and vocabulary but a small and not statistically significant decrease in listening. Furthermore, comparisons with the data obtained by mock TOEIC tests at both pre- and post-treatment stages showed a marked increase in all areas. Implications of the results of the study for teaching are discussed.