The Young Men's Association (YMA) was an education institute that provided programs and further education for young men. It aimed to train both mind and body, and valued physical education.<br>  However, in preceding studies of the YMA, emphasis was placed on the national stance that physical education should be promoted, or the implementation status of physical education in the YMA in the local community. Insufficient consideration was given to the policy and process of local government liaison between the national aim and regional implementation. The aim of the present study was to clarify the process of development of the physical education promotion policy of the YMA, taking as an example the Tokyo Prefecture administration during the Taisho Era.<br>  The following points were clarified:<br> 1) At the Local Governor Conference, no instruction was given regarding any specific method for development of physical education promotion by the YMA. Therefore, in each prefectural administration, policies needed to be formulated and implemented, taking into account the regional situation within each individual jurisdiction.<br> 2) Prefectural Governor Tomoichi Inoue, who spearheaded the YMA policy in Tokyo Prefecture, had set as the main objective of the YMA, the implementation of civil education and labor education for working young men. He considered physical education to be "prerequisite for all" activities of the YMA. In so doing, the aim was to train "young men who contribute to labor" through physical education.<br> 3) As a specialized institution reviewing physical education policies of the YMA in Tokyo Prefecture, Governor Inoue established the "Tokyo Prefecture Physical Education Council". The council members consisted of not only Tokyo prefectural workers, but also external "education and physical education experts".<br> 4) The Physical Education Council raised as specific issues, "improvement of the physique and strength of young men" and "popularization methods for physical education", and held repeated discussions with these aims in mind. In resolving the above issues, the Physical Education Council cooperated and collaborated with companies within Tokyo Prefecture, and further held "workshops" and "lectures" at the YMA at local level.<br> 5) The Physical Education Council compiled the information obtained through discussions and through such "workshops" and "lectures", and therefrom established and issued the "Tokyo Prefecture Regulations for Young Men's Physical Education". Promotion of these regulations played an important role in the origin of YMA physical education in Tokyo Prefecture in the years that followed.<br>

The Young Men's Association (YMA) was an education institute that provided programs and further education for young men. It aimed to train both mind and body, and valued physical education.<br>  However, in preceding studies of the YMA, emphasis was placed on the national stance that physical education should be promoted, or the implementation status of physical education in the YMA in the local community. Insufficient consideration was given to the policy and process of local government liaison between the national aim and regional implementation. The aim of the present study was to clarify the process of development of the physical education promotion policy of the YMA, taking as an example the Tokyo Prefecture administration during the Taisho Era.<br>  The following points were clarified:<br> 1) At the Local Governor Conference, no instruction was given regarding any specific method for development of physical education promotion by the YMA. Therefore, in each prefectural administration, policies needed to be formulated and implemented, taking into account the regional situation within each individual jurisdiction.<br> 2) Prefectural Governor Tomoichi Inoue, who spearheaded the YMA policy in Tokyo Prefecture, had set as the main objective of the YMA, the implementation of civil education and labor education for working young men. He considered physical education to be "prerequisite for all" activities of the YMA. In so doing, the aim was to train "young men who contribute to labor" through physical education.<br> 3) As a specialized institution reviewing physical education policies of the YMA in Tokyo Prefecture, Governor Inoue established the "Tokyo Prefecture Physical Education Council". The council members consisted of not only Tokyo prefectural workers, but also external "education and physical education experts".<br> 4) The Physical Education Council raised as specific issues, "improvement of the physique and strength of young men" and "popularization methods for physical education", and held repeated discussions with these aims in mind. In resolving the above issues, the Physical Education Council cooperated and collaborated with companies within Tokyo Prefecture, and further held "workshops" and "lectures" at the YMA at local level.<br> 5) The Physical Education Council compiled the information obtained through discussions and through such "workshops" and "lectures", and therefrom established and issued the "Tokyo Prefecture Regulations for Young Men's Physical Education". Promotion of these regulations played an important role in the origin of YMA physical education in Tokyo Prefecture in the years that followed.<br>

The purposes of the present research were to clarify the structure of relationships between senior and junior members (senpai and kohai) of junior high and high school clubs, and to clarify the extent of differences in the senior-junior relationships based on factors such as the type of club activity, students' academic year, and gender.  The research also aimed to examine the extent to which senior-junior relationships could be predicted on the basis of a description of the clubs' activities and characteristics of those activities.  Junior high (n=344 ; 166 boys, 178 girls) and high school (n=367 ; 140 boys, 227 girls) students nationwide completed questionnaires.  The results suggested that the first-year students reported that the senior-junior relationship was the most important one during both their junior high and high school years.  The junior high students also showed a trend for the female students taking the senior-junior relationship more seriously than the male students did.  These results suggest that the senior-junior relationships is more established in the activities of clubs that engage in a high level of competition, such as in sports competitions and contests, and also in sports clubs.  It was possible to predict the policy and personality of the clubs' activities with a high degree of certainty, based on various aspects of the senior-junior relationships in those clubs.

Due to athletic clubs that include members of different grades, the existence of senior-junior relationships may be regarded as an organizational characteristic. In contemplating the state of athletic clubs, although the importance of such senior-junior relationships has often been indicated, little empirical research thereon has been conducted thus far. Thus, in this article, the purpose is to develop of the scale for measuring senior-junior relationship in university athletic clubs and how such relationships differ according to the grade, gender and various club characteristics. The research was conducted by means of a questionnaire survey on 1,502 sports club members nationwide.As a result, the following points were clarified:1) As a result of developing a "senior-junior relationship scale in university athletic clubs," the juniorsenior relationships in university athletic clubs were found to consist of 4 factors, namely "dominance and subordination," "fellowship," "leadership and followership," and "partnership." 2) In senior-junior relationships, there were varying degrees of cognition according to the grade. In addition, different characteristics were seen according to the gender; for example, female members had a higher degree of "dominance and subordination," while male members had a higher degree of "fellowship. 3) As a result of considering differences according to the characteristics of the club, it was clarified that clubs with a high level of competition, clubs with team competition and traditional clubs which have been in existence since the pre-war Showa Period, scored higher for each factor in the senior-junior relationship scale.