In recent years, demand response has been emphasized due to the introduction of renewable energy with unstable power supply. Liquid desiccant systems have a heat storage effect, so it may be suitable for demand response, but it has not been studied. Therefore, in this research, we focused on using liquid desiccant systems as a power supply and demand adjusting regulator. We evaluated the unsteady behavior of this system by numerical simulation when it is used as a power supply and demand adjusting regulator. We created a mathematical model consisting of a gas-liquid contactor, a solution tank, and a room, and investigate the duration of power control without compromising comfort. As a result, it was clarified that a duration of about 30 minutes can be obtained by enlarging the solution tank and increasing the solution circulation amount appropriately. It was shown that the liquid desiccant air-conditioning system can be sufficiently used as a power supply and demand regulator.

This paper presents experimental data of heat and mass transfer characteristics of the gas-liquid contactor for a liquid desiccant air-conditioning system. In this study, finned-tube type internally heated regenerator is newly proposed. Furthermore, aqueous solution of ionic liquid is used as absorbent solution. Heat and mass transfer characteristics of the combination of proposed finned-tube type gas-liquid contactor and ionic liquid have yet to be revealed. Effects of air side Reynolds number and solution film Reynolds number upon air side heat transfer coefficient, solution side mass transfer coefficients and air side friction factor are experimentally investigated, and also, in order to obtain these data, numerical simulations are conducted. As a result, experimental data of these transfer coefficients and friction factor were obtained and the relationship between transfer coefficients and Reynolds numbers are quantitatively revealed. Moreover, these experimental results revealed that the mass transfer in the solution falling film is more dominant than that in the air side in almost entire experimental conditions.

Absorption chillers constitute a valuable option for utilising solar energy. Specifically, when installed in tropical regions, this technology ideally matches the needs for refrigeration and air-conditioning because of the abundance of solar energy throughout the year. A single-double-effect absorption chiller combines the single and double-effect configurations to compensate for the unpredictable instantaneous availability of solar radiation and cooling load fluctuations. The operative performance of this system is strongly affected by internal parameters such as the absorber outlet solution flow rate and the solution distribution ratio, which connect the operability of the single and double-effect configurations. Therefore, these important parameters are currently used to maximise system performance while assuring its stability. This study discusses how the COP of a single-double-effect absorption chiller, for solar cooling applications in tropical areas, can be maximised (1.55 at full load, and up to 2.42 at 60% partial load) by manipulating those internal parameters. The simulation results were compared with the experimental data (field test data) and, by adopting the appropriate control method, showed an improvement of the system performance between 12 and 60% when compared to a corresponding double-effect configuration.

This paper presents general types of correlation for the heat and mass transfer coefficients inside an air-solution contactor as expressions of Reynolds-Prandtl numbers and Reynolds-Schmidt numbers, respectively. These general equations summarize the physical and thermophysical properties of the air, the solution, and the contactor, which make them capable to be used for parametric studies provided they are fitted in a wide range of experimental data that include all the properties involved. In this work, a liquid desiccant system with an adiabatic structured packed bed as contactor and an aqueous lithium chloride as solution was constructed. The experimental data taken at various air superficial velocities and solution flow rates were fitted to the general correlations, and comparisons between the predicted and experimental results for both coefficients are within ±10%, for both dehumidification and regeneration processes. In addition, the calculated values of the outlet air humidity ratio and temperature agree well with the experimental data for both processes. The particular equations for the heat and mass transfer coefficients can be used to perform parametric studies at different air superficial velocities and solution flow rates with very good accuracy. Results from this study can help improve the system design and operation methods of air-solution contactors.

Detailed, reliable, and time-saving methods to predict the transfer characteristics of horizontal-tube falling-film absorbers are critical to control system operability, such that it is closer to its technical limitations, and to optimise increasingly complex configurations. In this context, analytical approaches continue to hold their fundamental importance. This study presents an analytical solution of the governing transport equations of film absorption around a partially wetted tube. A film stability criterion and a wettability model extend the validity range of the resulting solution and increase its accuracy. Temperature and mass fraction fields are analytically expressed as functions of Prandtl, Schmidt, and Reynolds numbers as well as tube dimensionless diameter and wetting ratio of the exchange surface. Inlet conditions are arbitrary. The Lewis number and a dimensionless heat of absorption affect the characteristic equation and the corresponding eigenvalues. Consequently, local and average transfer coefficients are estimated and discussed with reference to the main geometrical and operative parameters. Finally, a first comparison with the numerical solution of the problem and experimental data from previous literature is presented to support the simplifying assumptions, which are introduced and as a first model validation.

In falling film liquid desiccant systems, finding a suitable pair of liquid desiccant and contact surface is of primary engineering interest. This requires knowledge on the wetting characteristics of the liquid on the solid substrate, which consequently requires intensive experimental investigation. In this study, the wetting characteristics of a new ionic liquid aqueous solution in an aluminum fin-tube substrate were experimentally investigated. Then, a simple method for estimating the wetted area on the substrate through image processing was developed. Visual analysis of the surface wetting was also conducted, and three types of wetting patterns are discussed. Experimental results on the static contact angle and contact angle hysteresis suggest that the ionic liquid solution is mostly wetting, and the aluminum surface is slightly to moderately rough. It was found that the wettability of the ionic liquid solution increases as the ionic liquid mass fraction increases. The wetting hysteresis phenomenon and the factors contributing to its occurrence were also clarified. The results from this study would be useful for the development of a new model or improvement of existing wetting models, which can help improve the prediction and control of the heat and mass transfer performance in internally cooled/heated fin-tube contactors.

Due to their unique characteristics, recently ionic liquids have been proposed as a novel absorbent for absorption systems to eliminate the drawbacks of conventional water/LiBr working fluids, particularly crystallization and corrosion. Studies on the cycle performance of absorption cooling systems using water/ionic liquid working pairs have been published in many literatures. However, specific studies on the absorption characteristics of these new working pairs still remains open. Present study theoretically analyses the absorption characteristics of water vapor by aqueous ionic liquid solutions in a vertical tube falling film absorber. The model is developed by employing three ordinary differential equations describing the absorption process and is validated. The results are analyzed and the performances of water/ionic liquid are compared with those of conventional water/LiBr working fluid.

Annual heat load, energy consumption and COP of open refrigerated display cabinets (ORDC) driven by heat pump in supermarkets are assessed by means of a dedicated performance evaluation method. The system modelling approach is firstly presented, and subsequently fitted to experimental data measured within actual equipment working in a comprehensive range of operative conditions. The obtained characteristic equations for estimating the heat load of the ORDC and energy consumption of the condensing unit are employed for a first screening of the results with reference to the effect of the display cabinet set temperature, refrigerant evaporating temperature and supermarket room temperature. Seasonal temperature distributions of three representative locations are applied for the performance calculation of a selected arrangement of 5 different models of ORDCs in a store. This methodology is integrated in a dedicated software, with a user friendly interface, which is generally capable of predicting the annual performance of various combinations of different ORDCs and can therefore be used for benchmarking and identifying energy conservation opportunities.

A local entropy generation analysis, for water vapor absorption in LiBr-H2O solution, is performed referring to velocity, temperature and concentration fields obtained from the numerical solution of mass and energy transport equations. The hydrodynamic description is based on Nusselt boundary layer assumption and the actual amount of irreversibility introduced is determined for an absorptive falling film over a cooled horizontal tube inside the absorber. Results are explored in different operative conditions in order to examine the impact of the various irreversibility sources in a wide operative range. A least irreversible solution mass flow-rate can always be identified. Furthermore, a simple and general thermodynamic analysis, carried out regarding a refrigerating and a heat boosting applications, makes evidence of a dimensionless group "Q/sigma T" that separates the weight of the irreversibilities and gives the way to an optimization criterion applied to the absorber in order to improve the whole system efficiency. Both thermodynamic equilibrium and sub-cooling conditions of the solution at the inlet are considered for typical temperature and concentration of refrigerators' absorbers and heat transformers' absorbers. Results suggest the importance to work at reduced mass flow-rates with a thin uniform film. In practice, tension-active additives are required to realize this condition. Also, it is highlighted that the two parameters defined with reference to the dimensionless group "Q/sigma T" can be maximized by specific values of the tube radius, operative Reynolds number, solution sub-cooling and temperature difference between the wall and the inlet solution. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Based on a numerical study of the water vapour absorption process in LiBr-H2O solution, for a laminar, gravity driven, viscous, incompressible liquid film, flowing over a horizontal cooled tube, irreversibilities related to fluid friction, heat transfer, mass transfer and their coupling effects have been locally and globally examined. The hydrodynamic description is based on Nusselt boundary layer assumptions. The tangential and normal velocity components, respectively obtained from momentum and continuity equations, have been used for the numerical solution of mass and energy transport equations in the two-dimensional domain defined by the film thickness and the position along the tube surface. Local entropy generation calculation can be performed referring to the calculated velocity, temperature and concentration fields. Results have been explored in different operative conditions, in order to examine comprehensively the impact of the various irreversibility sources and to identify the least irreversible solution mass flow-rate for the absorber. As a parallel, a refined understanding of the absorption process can be obtained. Considering absorption at the film interface and cooling effect at the tube wall, the analysis thermodynamically characterises the absorption process which occurs inside actual falling film heat exchangers and establishes a criterion for their thermodynamic optimisation. Results suggest the importance to operate at reduced mass flow rates with a thin uniform film. Meanwhile, tension-active additives are required to realise this condition. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This study is based on a numerical analysis of water vapour absorption in a laminar, gravity driven, viscous, incompressible liquid film of LiBr-H2O solution, flowing over a horizontal cooled tube. The hydrodynamic description is based on Nusselt boundary layer assumptions. A local entropy generation calculation can be performed referring to velocity, temperature and concentration fields. From a general form of volumetric entropy generation, a suitable expression for the absorption process has been obtained and different irreversibility sources have been highlighted. The impact of each term (fluid friction, heat transfer, mass transfer and their coupling effects) has been locally examined. Results have been explored for different tube radii, wall temperatures and operative conditions (representing both chiller and heat transformer configurations), in order to characterise the process from a second law point of view and establish a criterion for the optimisation of the absorber.

The purpose of this study is to develop a supply air dew point temperature control of a desiccant air-conditioning system for low-humidity environments. To develop the control, we need to know the basic characteristics of the desiccant air conditioning system, which is a controlled system. In this paper, we construct a mathematical model and analyze systematically the basic characteristics of the controlled system. Specifically, we investigate the static and dynamic characteristics of the controlled system with respect to manipulated variables such as desiccant-wheel rotary speed and regeneration outside air flow rate. For static characteristics, we investigate the relation between controlled and manipulated variables and examine the influence of manipulated variables on controlled variables. For dynamic characteristics, we investigate the step response of controlled variables and examine the responsivity or overshoot of controlled variables.

In this work a thermodynamic analysis of a desiccant wheel is proposed to investigate and identify the optimum size and operating regime of this device. A steady state entropy generation expression, based on effectiveness parameters suitable for desiccant wheels operability, is obtained applying a control volume approach and assuming perfect gas behaviour of the binary air-vapour mixture. A new entropy generation number N-L, is defined using a minimum indicative value of the entropy generation S-L,S-min and investigated in order to obtain useful criteria for desiccant wheels optimization. The effectiveness-NTU design method is employed by combining solution of thermal exchange efficiency for rotary heat exchanger with the characteristic potential method, under the conditions of heat and mass transfer analogy. The analysis is applied to a specific desiccant wheel and N-L, variation with NTU is explored under various operative conditions and wheels characteristics in terms of dimensionless velocity and flow unbalance ratio. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In air-conditioning field, a dehumidification has become increasingly important for human health and comfort especially in hot and humid climates. However, a conventional mechanical dehumidification with a vapor compression refrigerator has some problems. Therefore, much attention has been paid recently to a desiccant air-conditioning system as an alternative to the conventional system. In this paper, we focus on a rotary desiccant wheel which is the main component of the desiccant air-conditioning system and develop and validate the mathematical model by comparison with experimental results. The validation is conducted under various operating conditions. The mathematical model discussed in this paper includes, for example, the entrance region effect in air channel, detailed diffusion phenomenon in porous solid. In experiments, effects of the regeneration air temperature, air superficial velocity, wheel thickness and wheel rotational speed on the desiccant wheel performance are investigated. In addition, the temperature and humidity distribution at the outlet of the desiccant wheel are measured. As a result, an average relative error between the predicted and the measured humidity ratio difference distribution is 3.3% and temperature difference distribution 10.8%. Moreover, the effect of the regeneration air inlet temperature, the air superficial velocity, wheel thickness and wheel rotational speed on the desiccant wheel performance are clarified and the predicted results are totally in good agreement with the measured results. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Compression-type heat pumps have been employed in many fields of refrigeration and air conditioning for achieving energy savings. In addition, the system operates at high efficiency under a variety of operating conditions throughout the year through various innovative components, such as the inverter, and the annual performance improvement. However, the running time of the system over the year under low load conditions is very long, and under such conditions, the system operates intermittently because of the difficulty in the continuous running of the compressor. Of course, because intermittent driving is made under such an operating condition, the performance can estimate that it decreases greatly easily, but it is the present conditions that field operation performance does not become clear almost. Therefore, the key goals of this study were to clarify the intermittent driving performance of the compression-type heat pump and to devise a way to improve its performance and develop an optimum operation method. As the first step, we constructed a mathematical model that can predict intermittent driving characteristics at the time of low load of the pump, which are crucial to investigation of the performance. The constructed model was validated experimentally. In summary, a mathematical model of the compression-type heat pump was constructed, and its validity was demonstrated via comparison of its results with those obtained experimentally.

In air-conditioning field, a dehumidification has become increasingly important for human health and comfort especially in hot and humid climates. However, a conventional mechanical dehumidification using a vapor compression refrigerator has some problems. Therefore, much attention has been paid recently to a desiccant air-conditioning system as an alternative to the conventional system. In this paper, we focus on a liquid desiccant air-conditioning system using lithium chloride - water solution and experimentally investigate the heat and mass transfer of the packed bed absorber and regenerator that are the main components of the system. In the experiment, effects of the air superficial velocity and solution mass flux on the overall heat and mass transfer coefficients are examined. As a result of the study, we found that the heat and mass transfer coefficients increase with increase of the air superficial velocity, however, the heat transfer coefficient is approximately constant with increase of the solution mass flux.

In air-conditioning field, a dehumidification has become increasingly important for human health and comfort especially in hot and humid climates. However, a conventional mechanical dehumidification with a vapor compression refrigerator has some problems. Therefore, much attention has been paid recently to a desiccant air-conditioning system as an alternative to the conventional system. In this paper, we focus on a desiccant air-conditioning system using a rotary desiccant wheel. The purpose of this study is to develop the simulation model of the desiccant wheel that can be applied to the various operating conditions. In this paper, the simulation model is validated under indoor air circulation condition by comparison with the detailed experimental results. In the model, the heat and mass transfer phenomenon in both air channel side and desiccant wall side are considered in detail. As a result, the simulation results of outlet humidity and temperature were in good agreement with the experimental results under indoor air circulation condition and then the simulation model was validated.

This study focuses on a hybrid liquid desiccant air-conditioning system consisting of a conventional liquid desiccant system and a vapour compression heat pump. The hybrid liquid desiccant air-conditioning system is expected to enhance the system efficiency of a conventional liquid desiccant system. In this study, the liquid desiccant is aqueous solution of lithium chloride and the refrigerant of the vapour compression heat pump is R407C. The main feature of this system is that the absorber and regenerator are integrated with the evaporator and condenser respectively. The performance evaluation test is conducted to obtain the primary data. Additionally, the improvement method for the system efficiency is discussed by the mathematical calculations. As a result, the system can dehumidify 5.9 g/kg(DA) under the conditions of summer in Tokyojapan. Then, the calculation results show that COPs can become higher by improving the compressor isentropic efficiency and the temperature efficiency of solution heat exchanger. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

If a desiccant dehumidification system can be driven by a heat source whose temperature is below 50 degrees C, exhaust heat from devices such as fuel cells or air conditioners can be used as its heat source, thereby saving energy. Therefore, in this study, we used a previously validated simulation model to determine the minimum heat source temperature for driving a desiccant dehumidification system. We considered four desiccant dehumidification systems that can be driven by waste heat-conventional desiccant-type systems (wheel type and batch type with only desiccant), a system with a precooler, double-stage-type systems (a type with two desiccant wheels and a four-partition desiccant wheel type), and a batch-type system with an internal heat exchanger. We found that among these systems, the last system can be driven by the lowest heated air temperature-approximately 33 degrees C-which is considerably lower than that of the conventional system. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

A simulation model for the CO2 heat pump water heater was developed and validated in this study. Component models of the gas cooler, evaporator, compressor, and expansion valve were constructed with careful consideration for the heat transfer performances. To validate the simulation model, experiments were carried out using an actual CO2 heat pump water heater (water heating capacity: 22.3 kW; hot-water temperature: 90 degrees C). In simulations and experiments, the effects of the inlet water temperature and outside air temperature on the system characteristics were discussed. As a result, the average difference in COP between the simulation results and experimental results is 1.5%. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A desiccant dehumidification system with air can decrease energy consumption because it can be driven by low-grade waste heat below 80 degrees C. If this system can be driven by low-temperature heat sources whose temperature is below 50 degrees C, exhausted heat from fuel cells or air conditioners that exist everywhere can be used as heat sources. This could lead to considerable energy saving. This study provides a detailed evaluation of the performance of a four-partition desiccant wheel to make a low-temperature driving heat source possible and achieve considerable energy saving by the simulation and experiment. Further, the study investigates the in-depth performance of a hybrid air-conditioning system with a four-partition desiccant wheel by simulation. As a result, it was clear that there exists an optimum rotational speed to maximize the dehumidification performance and that the hybrid air-conditioning system improves COP by approximately 94% as compared to the conventional vapour compression-type refrigerator. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

This paper deals with the hybrid air conditioning system that combines the desiccant air-conditioning system with the compression type refrigerator. To construct this system, multistage desiccant wheel is applied for the desiccant air-conditioning system. With this wheel, the process air can be cooled down by the evaporator of the compression type refrigerator during the dehumidification process so that the temperature of the heat source can be reduced greatly. The performance of this hybrid air-conditioning system is analyzed by the simulation. For this simulation, the model of the desiccant air-conditioning system whose validity has already been confirmed is used. As a result of the simulation, we found that the multistage desiccant air-conditioning system can be driven by the heat about 42℃, which is almost equal to the exhaust heat temperature of the compression type refrigerator, and the hybrid air conditioning system improves COP about 68% higher than the conventional air conditioning system. This implies that the hybrid air conditioning system is an effective system for the next generation air conditioning system.