© 2019 Due to the intrinsic complexity of two-phase flow distribution and the limited mathematical flexibility of conventional formulations of the phenomenon, previous attempts generally fall short in the accuracy and applicability of their prediction. To address these issues, this study focuses on methods with higher mathematical flexibility. Specifically, the construction and training of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is presented for the identification of this complex phenomenon. The interaction of the numerous physical phenomena, occurring at different scales, is thus represented by the network structure, offering a formulation capable of achieving higher accuracy. Experimental data from a full-scale heat exchanger of an air-conditioning system operating over a wide range of conditions are used to train and test the ANN. The network optimisation with Bayesian regularisation against experimental data leads to a structure featuring 4 inputs, 3 hidden layers, and 3 neurons for each layer, which demonstrates deviations on the single output mostly lower than ± 10% and a correlation index higher than 98%, when the whole data set is used for training the ANN. The analysis of the network optimisation for different shares of data used for the network testing, shows higher training and testing accuracy as the number of training data increases, along with no apparent overfitting.

In this paper, dynamic performance identification for a direct expansion (DX) air conditioning (AC) system is proposed using Bayesian artificial neural network (ANN). The input and output datasets are generated by a dedicated AC simulator by varying the compressor speed in various signal amplitudes and including dynamic cooling load and ambient temperature. The exergy destruction, which represents the work potential losses in the system and room temperature indicating the thermal comfort are selected as the output variables. The key parameters of an ANN model, including the number of neurons and tapped delay lines, are optimized to improve the prediction accuracy. The results show that the dynamic response of the exergy destruction and room temperature can be predicted accurately by the optimized ANN model using three neurons, a Bayesian regularization algorithm, five delayed inputs for the compressor speed and room temperature, and six delayed inputs for the cooling load and ambient temperature. The validation of the multi-step-ahead prediction showed satisfying results with respect to the root mean squared errors (RMSEs) and coefficient of variations (CVs) of the room temperature (RMSE: 0.18 degrees C and CV: 0.85%) and exergy destruction (RMSE: 1.79 W and CV: 0.4%). Accordingly, the identification of the AC system behavior presented in this paper could be further implemented to control the DX AC system operation to achieve a desired thermal comfort with low exergy destruction.

© 2019 International Institute of Refrigeration. All rights reserved. A new design of an internally cooled desiccant contactor which uses a new ionic liquid (IL) solution as sorptive medium is targeted. To optimise its operative performance, a semi-theoretical model based on a variational thermodynamic principle is developed to predict the film rupture and wetting ability of the IL solution for different values of the IL mass fraction over a comprehensive range of liquid spray density. The minimum Reynolds number Reb allowing the film-like flow configuration and, below this value, the wetted fraction of the solid substrate are firstly formulated on an analytical basis. Successively, the theoretical formulation is used as a reference to minimise deviations between predicted results and measured data by calibrating dedicated characteristic coefficients. Predicted film rupture, wetting ability and wetting hysteresis behaviour are strongly affected by the IL mass fraction and found in good agreement with the measurements.

The air-conditioning system for buildings and facilities is required that the room temperature and the humidity are kept in a predetermined range for comfortable air-conditioning. For achieving the above only by a heat pump, the room condition should be heated till the preset temperature after cooling till the temperature from which the request humidity is obtained, and this operation is inefficient.To overcome such inefficiency, separation of latent heat and sensible heat has been proposed. This is a two-step process in which temperature and humidity are adjusted separately in two steps by combining desiccant dehumidifier and heat pump. Theoretically, the system is known to be effective in reducing energy consumption, but in practical application, this technology can be further improved.In this research, we combined the liquid desiccant equipment which can perform low temperature regeneration and R718 centrifugal heat pump suitable for high efficiency for this application. Based on this concept, we have developed a highly efficient air-conditioning system by improving element equipment and optimizing operating conditions. The performance of this system is reported here.

© Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd. Ionic liquids, salts which have liquid phase at temperature below 100°C, have been widely introduced in engineering applications, including absorption cooling systems. The application of ionic liquids in absorption cooling systems is intended to remove the disadvantages of conventional working fluids such as corrosion and crystallization. In terms of thermodynamic performances, theoretical investigation based on solubility behavior of ionic liquids in natural refrigerants show a competitive performance in comparison with conventional working fluid. Nevertheless, heat transfer performance, which is also an important key in absorption cooling systems, particularly in terms of system design and size, needs to be deeply explored and investigated. This study aims to assess the thermal and transport properties of ionic liquids as absorbent in relation to the heat and mass transfer characteristics of these working fluids. The thermal and transport properties of ionic liquids proposed as absorbent for absorption cooling systems are collected, and heat and mass transfer characteristic of these ionic liquids based on their thermal and transport properties are investigated and analyzed. Finally, the most suitable ionic liquids for absorption machines, both in terms of thermodynamics and heat and mass transfer performances can be proposed.

This study involves exploring a new design of an internally cooled/heated desiccant contactor by using a new ionic liquid (IL) solution as the sorptive solution. In order to optimize its operative performance, a semitheoretical model based on the principle of minimum energy is developed to predict the film rupture and wetting ability of the IL solution over a comprehensive range of IL mass fraction and flow rates. A first experimental validation of the fundamental equations of the theoretical model is presented and used as a reference to minimize deviations between predicted results and measured data by calibrating dedicated characteristic coefficients. The noteworthy quantitative and qualitative agreement in the whole range of IL mass fractions and flow rates is promising for contributing to the design of optimized system configurations and control strategies.

This paper presents general types of correlation for the heat and mass transfer coefficients inside an air solution contactor as expressions of Reynolds-Prandtl numbers and Reynolds-Schmidt numbers, respectively. These general equations summarize the physical and thermophysical properties of the air, the solution, and the contactor, which make them capable to be used for parametric studies provided they are fitted in a wide range of experimental data that include all the properties involved. In this work, a liquid desiccant system with an adiabatic structured packed bed as contactor and an aqueous lithium chloride as solution was constructed. The experimental data taken at various air superficial velocities and solution flow rates were fitted to the general correlations, and comparisons between the predicted and experimental results for both coefficients are within +/- 10%, for both dehumidification and regeneration processes. In addition, the calculated values of the outlet air humidity ratio and temperature agree well with the experimental data for both processes. The particular equations for the heat and mass transfer coefficients can be used to perform parametric studies at different air superficial velocities and solution flow rates with very good accuracy. Results from this study can help improve the system design and operation methods of air-solution contactors. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In falling film liquid desiccant systems, finding a suitable pair of liquid desiccant and contact surface is of primary engineering interest. This requires knowledge on the wetting characteristics of the liquid on the solid substrate, which consequently requires intensive experimental investigation. In this study, the wetting characteristics of a new ionic liquid aqueous solution in an aluminum fin-tube substrate were experimentally investigated. Then, a simple method for estimating the wetted area on the substrate through image processing was developed. Visual analysis of the surface wetting was also conducted, and three types of wetting patterns are discussed. Experimental results on the static contact angle and contact angle hysteresis suggest that the ionic liquid solution is mostly wetting, and the aluminum surface is slightly to moderately rough. It was found that the wettability of the ionic liquid solution increases as the ionic liquid mass fraction increases. The wetting hysteresis phenomenon and the factors contributing to its occurrence were also clarified. The results from this study would be useful for the development of a new model or improvement of existing wetting models, which can help improve the prediction and control of the heat and mass transfer performance in internally cooled/heated fin-tube contactors. (C) 2018 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

General implementation of air conditioning in buildings and facilities is such that in order to keep room temperature and humidity within predetermined range, heat pump is used to lower the air temperature to achieve desired humidity and then the air is heated to the specified temperature. From energy-saving perspective, this process is inefficient.To overcome such inefficiency, separation of latent heat and sensible heat has been proposed. This is a two-step process in which temperature and humidity are adjusted separately in two steps by combining desiccant dehumidifier and heat pump. Theoretically, the system is known to be effective in reducing energy consumption, but in practical application, this technology can be further improved.For this research, we have chosen liquid desiccant dehumidifier as the desiccant can be regenerated at low temperature. For heat pump system, we have chosen R718 centrifugal as it is suited for increasing efficiency for such combination of desiccant and heat pump. By improving each element of the system and seeking optimization of operating conditions, we aim to develop a high efficiency air-conditioning system. The result is reported here.

An analytical study based on a variational thermodynamic principle is presented to evaluate the influence of surface tension on the stability of annular flow within small-sized channels. The model introduces phenomenological assumptions in the interfacial structure of the flow regime and theoretically draws the equilibrium transition line from an annular regime to the initiation of the partial wetting condition on the inner surface. By including surface tension, this model expands previous theories and identifies the stable flow configuration in terms of void fraction and interfacial extension. The significant influence of a higher surface tension and smaller diameter (i.e. lower Weber number) are responsible for a lower stable void fraction and higher slip ratio. A complete screening of the main influential parameters is conducted to explore the descriptive ability of the model. This analysis aims at contributing to the understanding of the stability of two-phase flow regimes and can be extended to the transition between other neighbouring regimes, including wall friction as well as liquid entrainment phenomena. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Due to their unique characteristics, recently ionic liquids have been proposed as a novel absorbent for absorption systems to eliminate the drawbacks of conventional water/LiBr working fluids, particularly crystallization and corrosion. Studies on the cycle performance of absorption cooling systems using water/ionic liquid working pairs have been published in many literatures. However, specific studies on the absorption characteristics of these new working pairs still remains open. Present study theoretically analyses the absorption characteristics of water vapor by aqueous ionic liquid solutions in a vertical tube falling film absorber. The model is developed by employing three ordinary differential equations describing the absorption process and is validated. The results are analyzed and the performances of water/ionic liquid are compared with those of conventional water/LiBr working fluid.

As widely known, some industrial processes produce a large amount of waste heat while others require a large amount of steam to heat the process flow. The main difference involves the temperature level of these heat quantities. Absorption heat transformers play a strategic role in waste heat recovery and heat supply to manufacturing processes due to their ability to utilize heat at a certain temperature level and release the enthalpy of mixing of the refrigerant at a different temperature level with a negligible amount of mechanical work input. However, given the lack of examples that find application as operative plants, the feasibility of the technology is questioned in academic and technical domains. In this study, the operability of a double-lift absorption heat transformer that generates pressurized steam at 170 degrees C is studied across a full range of operative conditions. The results demonstrate and clarify the manner in which the system can operate steadily and efficiently when driven by hot water temperature at approximately 80 degrees C while safely generating steam at a temperature exceeding 170 degrees C. The conditions yielding maximum system efficiency and capacity are identified, and the obtained experimental results are used to define an optimal control strategy. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This work presents a two-dimensional analytical solution of the governing differential equation for falling film vapour-absorption around a plain horizontal tube. The solution of the species transport equation gives the LiBr mass fraction distribution within the liquid absorptive film flowing along the tube surface and can be used to characterize the mass transfer performance of falling film absorbers or generators. By means of the inclusion of partial wetting effects at reduced solution mass flowrates, this study obtains an analytical expression of the mass transfer coefficient of these devices applicable over an extended range of operative conditions. The hypotheses of small penetration for physical absorption and constant heat flux condition are applied at the film interface to reach a closed-form solution. Fourier method is used to solve the problem and the eigenvalues obtained from the characteristic equation depend on Lewis number, Biot number and the dimensionless heat of absorption. Given the boundary condition at the wall, the two-dimensional mass fraction field of the laminar film can be expressed analytically as a function of Schmidt, Reynolds numbers, the tube dimensionless diameter and the ratio of the wetted area to the total exchange surface. Finally, mass transfer coefficient and absorbed mass flux are locally and globally investigated as functions of the influent dimensionless groups to clarify their effects on the physical process and screen the potentiality of the model. Results show notable qualitative and quantitative agreement with previous numerical solutions and experimental results from previous literature. This model constitutes a widely applicable and time-saving tool for actual system simulations, design and control. (C) 2017 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

This study examines, using actual driving and simulations, transient operation characteristics and control methods for a combined system. It consists of both single-stage compression-type and single-effect absorption-type refrigerators and is driven by the shaft power and waste heat from a gas engine. Given the complicated nature of the system, determining the unsteady-state performance and control characteristics of the entire system is difficult. Hence, it must be equipped with an adequate control system to maintain acceptable system performance. Our results reveal that this system is controlled, as predicted, under unsteady-state conditions by using a novel control method. The unsteady-state simulation model is validated by comparing the driving results with the simulated results. Thus, gas-engine-driven combined air-conditioning systems possess a response time similar to absorption-type refrigerators. This indicates that the transient response of the entire system is governed by the absorption-type refrigerator, although the cooling capacity of the absorption-type refrigerator is only 13% of the entire cooling capacity. Therefore, when designing the control system of the combined system, the fact that the entire combined system is mainly governed by the absorption-type refrigerator should be considered despite its low cooling capacity.

Heat and mass transfer processes performed by using thin liquid films are recurrent in a series of technical applications. The circumstances under which dry spots appear on the exchange surface for the film breakage, as well as the extent of the wetted part of the surface and the liquid vapor interface, are critical to predict and control the performances of these devices. To characterize the wetting behavior of liquid films on internally-cooled desiccant contactors, this paper originates from an experimental study and, adopting a standpoint useful for a practical interpretation of wettability measurements, introduces a corresponding theoretical model based on the principle of minimum energy. Both the estimation of the wetted area by image processing of the test section and the theoretical model highlight a hysteresis phenomenon of the film wetting behavior for gradually increasing and decreasing liquid flowrates. The modeling approach, experimental results and a first comparison are hereby presented and discussed. Quantitative and qualitative agreement appears promising for a further employment of the model in actual system design and control. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A local entropy generation analysis, for water vapor absorption in LiBr-H2O solution, is performed referring to velocity, temperature and concentration fields obtained from the numerical solution of mass and energy transport equations. The hydrodynamic description is based on Nusselt boundary layer assumption and the actual amount of irreversibility introduced is determined for an absorptive falling film over a cooled horizontal tube inside the absorber. Results are explored in different operative conditions in order to examine the impact of the various irreversibility sources in a wide operative range. A least irreversible solution mass flow-rate can always be identified. Furthermore, a simple and general thermodynamic analysis, carried out regarding a refrigerating and a heat boosting applications, makes evidence of a dimensionless group "Q/sigma T" that separates the weight of the irreversibilities and gives the way to an optimization criterion applied to the absorber in order to improve the whole system efficiency. Both thermodynamic equilibrium and sub-cooling conditions of the solution at the inlet are considered for typical temperature and concentration of refrigerators' absorbers and heat transformers' absorbers. Results suggest the importance to work at reduced mass flow-rates with a thin uniform film. In practice, tension-active additives are required to realize this condition. Also, it is highlighted that the two parameters defined with reference to the dimensionless group "Q/sigma T" can be maximized by specific values of the tube radius, operative Reynolds number, solution sub-cooling and temperature difference between the wall and the inlet solution. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Indonesia's economic growth has continued at a steady rate of approximately 5% to 6% annually, and energy consumption in the entire country has been increasing year by year. Demand for air conditioning in buildings is expanding. In line with this expansion, a 239 kW solar air-conditioning system using a single-double effect combined absorption chiller was installed in a building at the University of Indonesia's Faculty of Engineering located in Depok city, near Jakarta, with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. We collected and analyzed data from this air-conditioning system to better comprehend its performance. We report the outline and the performance of the chiller and the air-conditioning system.

Multi-temperature-level systems enlarge the prospects and degrees of freedom for an effective design and an environment-friendly use of energy. Based on a general thermodynamic model of three-thermal cycles and finite thermal capacity of the heat sources, this paper aims at the analysis and the performance optimization of these systems by considering the influence of irreversibility. Suitable dimensionless parameters for an overall optimization are introduced and their influence on the cycle efficiency is investigated. This approach identifies the limitations imposed to the physical processes by accounting for the inevitable dissipation due to their constrained duration and intensity, and constitutes a general thermodynamic criterion for the optimization of three-thermal irreversible systems. Dependence on the main factors is highlighted in a way that shows how to change them in order to improve the overall efficiency. Under this point of view, the analysis evaluates COP improvements and can be used to perform plant diagnostics, besides predicting the system performance. The use of this criterion is exemplified for the absorption chiller application case.

Based on a numerical study of the water vapour absorption process in LiBr-H2O solution, for a laminar, gravity driven, viscous, incompressible liquid film, flowing over a horizontal cooled tube, irreversibilities related to fluid friction, heat transfer, mass transfer and their coupling effects have been locally and globally examined. The hydrodynamic description is based on Nusselt boundary layer assumptions. The tangential and normal velocity components, respectively obtained from momentum and continuity equations, have been used for the numerical solution of mass and energy transport equations in the two-dimensional domain defined by the film thickness and the position along the tube surface. Local entropy generation calculation can be performed referring to the calculated velocity, temperature and concentration fields. Results have been explored in different operative conditions, in order to examine comprehensively the impact of the various irreversibility sources and to identify the least irreversible solution mass flow-rate for the absorber. As a parallel, a refined understanding of the absorption process can be obtained. Considering absorption at the film interface and cooling effect at the tube wall, the analysis thermodynamically characterises the absorption process which occurs inside actual falling film heat exchangers and establishes a criterion for their thermodynamic optimisation. Results suggest the importance to operate at reduced mass flow rates with a thin uniform film. Meanwhile, tension-active additives are required to realise this condition. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Absorption heat transformers extend the possibilities for efficient and environment-friendly energy conversion processes. Based on a general thermodynamic model of three-thermal cycles with finite thermal capacity of the heat sources, this paper is intent upon analyzing and optimizing the performance of absorption heat transformers, by including the influence of irreversibility in the analytical expression of the system efficiency. Dimensionless parameters for an overall optimization are defined and a first screening is performed to clarify their influence. Dependence on the main factors is highlighted to suggest how to change them in order to enhance the whole system performance. Under this point of view, the analysis evaluates coefficient of performance (COP) improvements and can be used to perform existing plant diagnostics, besides predicting the system performance. The use of this criterion is exemplified for specific heat transformers data from literature. This approach identifies the limitations imposed to the physical processes by accounting for the inevitable dissipation due to their constrained duration and intensity, and constitutes a general thermodynamic criterion for the optimization of three-thermal irreversible systems.

In this work a thermodynamic analysis of a desiccant wheel is proposed to investigate and identify the optimum size and operating regime of this device. A steady state entropy generation expression, based on effectiveness parameters suitable for desiccant wheels operability, is obtained applying a control volume approach and assuming perfect gas behaviour of the binary air-vapour mixture. A new entropy generation number N-L, is defined using a minimum indicative value of the entropy generation S-L,S-min and investigated in order to obtain useful criteria for desiccant wheels optimization. The effectiveness-NTU design method is employed by combining solution of thermal exchange efficiency for rotary heat exchanger with the characteristic potential method, under the conditions of heat and mass transfer analogy. The analysis is applied to a specific desiccant wheel and N-L, variation with NTU is explored under various operative conditions and wheels characteristics in terms of dimensionless velocity and flow unbalance ratio. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

An experimental data comparison of evaporation heat transfer coefficient of R-744(CO2), R717(NH3), R-290(C3H8) and R-1234yf in horizontal small tubes was conducted under some various flow conditions. The experimental data were obtained over a heat flux range of 5 -60 kW m(-2), mass fluxes from 50 to 600 kg m(-2) S-1, saturation temperatures from 0 to 10 degrees C, and quality up to 1.0. The test section made of stainless steel tubes with inner diameters of 1.5 mm and 3.0 mm, and a length of 1000 and 2000 mm, respectively, was heated uniformly by applying an electric power to the tubes directly. Effects of mass flux, heat flux, saturation temperature and inner tube diameter on heat transfer coefficient are reported in the present study. Among the present working refrigerants, R-744 has a highest heat transfer coefficient. Laminar flow was observed in the evaporative small tubes and considered in the modification of evaporation heat transfer coefficient correlations. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

<tt>太陽熱一重二重効用吸収式冷凍機は太陽熱のバックアップとして量産型の高効率二重効用吸収式冷凍機を備えているため，太陽熱利用空調システムとして普及が進みつつある．本論文では当該冷凍機の主構成要素の熱・物質収支に関する解析モデルを構築して，太陽熱を利用して効率を高めることを目的とした設計の最適手法の確立を試みた．従来，設計に際して</tt>KA <tt>値を変えることは熱交換要素などの製作が必要となるため，制約があった．本手法では与えられた仕様に対し，</tt>KA <tt>値の特性を得て，最適の</tt>COP <tt>を得る解析を行った．本手法を用いることにより，多くの試作製作を省くことができ，設計スピードの向上が期待できる．さらに溶液のフローパターンが異なる三種類の二重効用サイクルの評価を行った結果，リバースフローをベースとしたサイクルが高い効率を得ることが判った</tt><tt>． </tt>

Compression-type heat pumps have been employed in many fields of refrigeration and air conditioning for achieving energy savings. In addition, the system operates at high efficiency under a variety of operating conditions throughout the year through various innovative components, such as the inverter, and the annual performance improvement. However, the running time of the system over the year under low load conditions is very long, and under such conditions, the system operates intermittently because of the difficulty in the continuous running of the compressor. Of course, because intermittent driving is made under such an operating condition, the performance can estimate that it decreases greatly easily, but it is the present conditions that field operation performance does not become clear almost. Therefore, the key goals of this study were to clarify the intermittent driving performance of the compression-type heat pump and to devise a way to improve its performance and develop an optimum operation method. As the first step, we constructed a mathematical model that can predict intermittent driving characteristics at the time of low load of the pump, which are crucial to investigation of the performance. The constructed model was validated experimentally. In summary, a mathematical model of the compression-type heat pump was constructed, and its validity was demonstrated via comparison of its results with those obtained experimentally.

In air-conditioning field, a dehumidification has become increasingly important for human health and comfort especially in hot and humid climates. However, a conventional mechanical dehumidification with a vapor compression refrigerator has some problems. Therefore, much attention has been paid recently to a desiccant air-conditioning system as an alternative to the conventional system. In this paper, we focus on a rotary desiccant wheel which is the main component of the desiccant air-conditioning system and develop and validate the mathematical model by comparison with experimental results. The validation is conducted under various operating conditions. The mathematical model discussed in this paper includes, for example, the entrance region effect in air channel, detailed diffusion phenomenon in porous solid. In experiments, effects of the regeneration air temperature, air superficial velocity, wheel thickness and wheel rotational speed on the desiccant wheel performance are investigated. In addition, the temperature and humidity distribution at the outlet of the desiccant wheel are measured. As a result, an average relative error between the predicted and the measured humidity ratio difference distribution is 3.3% and temperature difference distribution 10.8%. Moreover, the effect of the regeneration air inlet temperature, the air superficial velocity, wheel thickness and wheel rotational speed on the desiccant wheel performance are clarified and the predicted results are totally in good agreement with the measured results. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Due to the concern on global warming, the demand for a system using natural refrigerant is increasing and many researches have been devoted to develop systems with natural refrigerants. Among natural refrigerant systems, an air cycle system has emerged as one of alternatives of Freon gas system due to environmentally friendly feature in spite of the inherent low efficiency. To overcome the technical barrier, this study proposed combination of multiple systems as a hybrid cycle to achieve higher efficiency of an air cycle system. The hybrid air cycle adopts a humidity control units such as an adsorber and a desorber to obtain the cooling effect from latent heat as well as sensible heat. To investigate the efficacy of the hybrid air cycle, the cooling performance of a hybrid air cycle is investigated analytically and experimentally. From the simulation result, it is found that COP of the hybrid air cycle is two times higher than that of the conventional air cycle. The experiments are conducted on the performance of the desiccant system according to the rotation speed in the system and displayed the feasibility of the key element in the hybrid air cycle system. From the results, it is shown that the system efficiency can be enhanced by utilization of the exhausted heat through the ambient heat exchanger with advantage of controlling the humidity by the desiccant rotor.

Recently, information and communications technologies (ICT) have been widely used in the air-conditioning field, and high-performance and density ICT facilities have been rapidly growing. At the same time, the heat generated per unit area of a normal data center, where the servers and routers are concentrated, in an ICT facility is an extremely serious problem. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the performance and characteristics of the server spot cooling heat transportation system adopting CO2 as the working fluid to prevent the occurrence of hot spots and decrease the power consumed by a conventional overall air conditioning system installed at a data center with experiments and simulations. In the result, we determined the optimum CO2 circulation rate that maximizes the rejected heat flow rate, and minimizes power consumption. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of 2nd International Conference on Advances in Energy Engineering (ICAEE).

Smart energy system is very large energy system that consists of the windmill, solar panel, heat pump, air-conditioning system, solar thermal panel and so on. To develop efficient smart energy system, it is very important to investigate how to manage the total energy utilization of the total smart energy system. But it is difficult to examine the energy management only with experiment. The simulation is promising technology for the development of the energy management of the smart energy systems. But as this system is too large, we can't analyze this system, unless we analyze this system rationally. Therefore we have established the modular analysis theory that can analyze the large scale energy system. This paper introduces this theory and using this theory, we have developed the energy system analyzing simulator that is called "Energy Flow +M". This simulator has been already opened for the worldwide through Internet. This simulator is expected to be used for the energy saving of the total energy systems. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of 2nd International Conference on Advances in Energy Engineering (ICAEE).

This study focuses on a hybrid liquid desiccant air-conditioning system consisting of a conventional liquid desiccant system and a vapour compression heat pump. The hybrid liquid desiccant air-conditioning system is expected to enhance the system efficiency of a conventional liquid desiccant system. In this study, the liquid desiccant is aqueous solution of lithium chloride and the refrigerant of the vapour compression heat pump is R407C. The main feature of this system is that the absorber and regenerator are integrated with the evaporator and condenser respectively. The performance evaluation test is conducted to obtain the primary data. Additionally, the improvement method for the system efficiency is discussed by the mathematical calculations. As a result, the system can dehumidify 5.9 g/kg(DA) under the conditions of summer in Tokyojapan. Then, the calculation results show that COPs can become higher by improving the compressor isentropic efficiency and the temperature efficiency of solution heat exchanger. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

If a desiccant dehumidification system can be driven by a heat source whose temperature is below 50 degrees C, exhaust heat from devices such as fuel cells or air conditioners can be used as its heat source, thereby saving energy. Therefore, in this study, we used a previously validated simulation model to determine the minimum heat source temperature for driving a desiccant dehumidification system. We considered four desiccant dehumidification systems that can be driven by waste heat-conventional desiccant-type systems (wheel type and batch type with only desiccant), a system with a precooler, double-stage-type systems (a type with two desiccant wheels and a four-partition desiccant wheel type), and a batch-type system with an internal heat exchanger. We found that among these systems, the last system can be driven by the lowest heated air temperature-approximately 33 degrees C-which is considerably lower than that of the conventional system. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

A gas engine driven hybrid air conditioning system was constructed; it consisted of a gas engine, a single-stage compression-type refrigerator, and a single-effect absorption-type refrigerator that can be driven by shaft power and waste heat, respectively, from the gas engine. Its efficiency is greatly enhanced as compared to a conventional gas engine heat pump because it utilizes waste heat from the gas engine. This study used simulation and experiments to elucidate the static characteristics of this air conditioning system and develop a control system to drive this combined system efficiently. In the simulation results, the system COP at the design point was about 1.87 and, at 50% partial load operation, the performance increased by 14% because of the simultaneous manipulation of the input gas flow rate and hot water flow rate. The validity of the simulation was confirmed by experiments carried out using the actual constructed machine. (c) 2011 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

A simulation model for the CO2 heat pump water heater was developed and validated in this study. Component models of the gas cooler, evaporator, compressor, and expansion valve were constructed with careful consideration for the heat transfer performances. To validate the simulation model, experiments were carried out using an actual CO2 heat pump water heater (water heating capacity: 22.3 kW; hot-water temperature: 90 degrees C). In simulations and experiments, the effects of the inlet water temperature and outside air temperature on the system characteristics were discussed. As a result, the average difference in COP between the simulation results and experimental results is 1.5%. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Nowadays new types of heat exchangers which utilize small channel tubes with ammonia refrigerant have been widely considered due to the high energy efficiency and environmental issues. This study carries out experiment in evaporation temperature of -10 degrees C to +5 degrees C at 10 to 40 kW/m(2) heat flux and 40 to 120 kg/m(2)s in mass flux with 1.0 mm and 3.0 mm inner diameter tubes. The test results showed high heat transfer coefficient for 1.0 mm tube. The Kandlikar model predicted both 1.0mm and 3.0mm tube's heat transfer coefficient well. For recording the flow patterns inside the tube, we used a high speed video camera and found the annular flow dominated at the low vapor quality region for 1.0mm tube. Accordingly the annular flow seemed to be the cause of the high heat transfer. Also we measured pressure drop in both of the tubes and found that there was not much difference between 1.0 mm and 3.0 mm tubes under the same experimental conditions. A separated model with the Mishima Hibiki parameter predicted the pressure drop of 1.0mm results well, but couldn't predict that of the 3.0mm results.

An experimental study of evaporation pressure drop in single circular small tubes was conducted for flow of C3H8, NH3 and CO2 under some various flow conditions. The test matrix encompasses the entire quality range from 0.0 to 1.0, mass fluxes from 50 to 600 kg m(-2) s(-1), heat fluxes from 5 to 70 kW m(-2) and saturation temperatures from 0 to 10 degrees C. The test section was made of circular stainless steel tubes with inner diameters of 1.5 mm and 3.0 mm, and a length of 2000 mm in horizontal orientation. The test section was heated uniformly by applying an electric power to the tubes directly. The effects of mass flux, heat flux, saturation temperature and inner tube diameter are presented in this study. The pressure drop of CO2 is the lowest among the working refrigerants. The experimental pressure drop was compared with some existing pressure drop correlations. Existing void fraction prediction methods were evaluated for the present experimental pressure drop. A modified pressure drop correlation using homogenous void fraction model is developed.

In general, latent heat recovery is usually accompanied by the corrosion of the heat exchanger, which is caused by the strongly acidic condensate when the temperature of the flue gas is lowered below the acid dew point. The present study has been conducted to investigate the heat and mass transfer characteristics in a titanium heat exchanger with excellent corrosion resistance used for waste heat recovery with the condensation arranged in a gas fired water heater. In addition, the thermal efficiency of the gas fired water heater was evaluated based on the net calorific value at the maximum rated output during latent heat recovery from the exhaust flue gas. Parametric studies were conducted for the flue gas flow rate, inlet temperature and mass flow, rate of the supplied water, respectively. Different arrangements of the tubes of the heat exchanger including in-line and staggered configurations were investigated. The experimental results indicate that the thermal efficiency of the gas fired water heater with a latent heat recovery (LHR) heat exchanger was enhanced by about 10% compared with conventional instantaneous water heaters, i.e., water heaters without heat recovery. In addition, in terms of the Nusselt number and the Sherwood number, the heat and mass transfer performance of the staggered tube bank type were approximately 50% and 10% higher than that on the in-line tube bank type when the Reynolds number of the flue gas was 10(3). (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A desiccant dehumidification system with air can decrease energy consumption because it can be driven by low-grade waste heat below 80 degrees C. If this system can be driven by low-temperature heat sources whose temperature is below 50 degrees C, exhausted heat from fuel cells or air conditioners that exist everywhere can be used as heat sources. This could lead to considerable energy saving. This study provides a detailed evaluation of the performance of a four-partition desiccant wheel to make a low-temperature driving heat source possible and achieve considerable energy saving by the simulation and experiment. Further, the study investigates the in-depth performance of a hybrid air-conditioning system with a four-partition desiccant wheel by simulation. As a result, it was clear that there exists an optimum rotational speed to maximize the dehumidification performance and that the hybrid air-conditioning system improves COP by approximately 94% as compared to the conventional vapour compression-type refrigerator. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

In this paper, we have developed a simulation model of a desiccant wheel to use the investigation of the optimum design and operation. For this usage, the high precision model has to be constructed for the global design and operating conditions. Heat and mass transfer phenomenon inside the desiccant wheel are divided into the convection heat and mass transfer inside air channels and heat and mass diffusions inside desiccant walls. Therefore, the simulation model is developed separately divided into the air channel and the desiccant wall. In the desiccant wall, the model is constructed by considering the diffusion in the porous solid. On the other hand, in the air channel, the convective heat and mass transfer coefficients are derived from the CFD analysis. To validate the model, we examined the effect of the air superficial velocity on the pressure drop and the effect of the regeneration air inlet temperature on the outlet humidity and temperature. As a result, The simulation results are in good agreement with the experimental results and the validity of this simulation model was confirmed.

An experimental study of R-22 and R-134a two-phase vaporization in horizontal minichannel was reported. In order to obtain the local heat transfer coefficients, the test was ran under heat flux range of 10 to 40 kW m(-2), mass flux range of 200 to 600 kg m(-2) s(-1), saturation temperature range of 5 to 10 degrees C, and quality up to 1.0. The test section, which was made of stainless steel tube and heated uniformly by applying an electric current to the tube directly, has inner tube diameters of 0.5, 1.5 and 3.0 mm, and lengths of 0.33 and 2.0 m. The effects on heat transfer coefficient of mass flux, heat flux and inner tube diameter were presented. The experimental heat transfer coefficients were compared with the predictions using existing heat transfer coefficient correlations. A. new boiling heat transfer coefficient correlation based on the superposition model, with considering the laminar flow, was developed.

Sorption dehumidification of air has become the. focus of attention as an alternative to conventional dehumidification process by air cooling below the dew point. Liquid desiccant using LiCl solution has advantages over conventional solid desiccants, because the energy loss per hydration-dehydration process cycle is smaller for liquid desiccant than it is for typical solid desiccant. An open cycle absorption type dehumidifier using LiCl solution in this paper is can be driven by low grade waste heat and is effective for saving energy. However, a detailed analysis of the characteristics of the system has not been clearly investigated.The purpose of this paper is to evaluate a performance of the dehumidifier using LiCl solution on condition that air conditioning is driven in hot and high humid summer climate in Japan. In this paper, first, a packed bed as a part of absorption type dehumidifier is evaluated in which heat and mass transfer occur simultaneously, and secondary, the characteristics of dehumidifier is investigated as the whole system.As a simulation result, in case of performance evaluation of the system, when the heat source (hot water) tmperature is 70 degrees C, COPD (the efficiency of dehumidification) is 0.7 at design point. And, when the heat source temperature is about 80 degrees C, LiCl crystallizes by physical property of LiCl solution cooled in solution cooler that the cycle can not be driven. Therefore, heat source temperature must be carefully designed to keep the solution concentration below crystallization line.

The performance of natural gas (13A) fired water heater with titanium heat exchanger for latent heat recovery was evaluated. In the terms of thermal efficiency, the performance of the water heater was evaluated based on the net calorific value at maximum rated output. The thermal efficiency of gas fired water heater with latent heat recovery heat exchanger was ≈ 10% higher than that of the conventional instantaneous water heater. The overall heat conductance of the heat exchanger with staggered tube rows was more efficient than that of the inline tube rows.

A hybrid air conditioning system consists of a gas engine as a driving source and a single-stage compression and single-effect absorption type refrigerator that can be driven by a motive power and a waste heat from the gas engine simultaneously. It can improve the efficiency of the gas engine heat pump greatly because it uses the waste heat from the gas engine. This paper aims to estimate the performance and construct the control systems to drive this hybrid air conditioning system efficiently by the simulation. The static simulation models of the hybrid air conditioning system were constructed and the performance was investigated using the model. As a result of the simulation, system COP of the design point is about 1.87. And one of the actual control methods to achieve efficient partial load is manipulating two parameters - rotational speed and the hot water flow rate simultaneously. At 50% partial load operation, the performance is 14% higher than that of the design point.

The present study investigated the characteristics of heat transfer and pressure drop for various types of enhanced titanium tubes. The heat transfer experiments were conducted using a steam-condensing flow facility at a constant inlet temperature of cooling water, and the Reynolds number range varied from 15,000 to 65,000. The heat transfer coefficients were determined using a modified version of the Wilson plot technique and the friction factors were calculated from pressure drop measurements. The experimental results reported enable practical design to be achieved for the heat exchanger using enhanced titanium tubes and optimization of tube geometry for specific conditions.

The present study, investigated the characteristics of heat transfer and pressure drop for various types of enhanced titanium tubes. The heat transfer experiments were conducted using a steam-condensing flow facility at a constant inlet temperature of cooling water, and the Reynolds number range varied from 15,000 to 65,000. The heat transfer coefficients were determined using a modified version of the Wilson plot technique and the friction factors were calculated from pressure drop measurements. The experimental results reported enable practical design to be achieved for the heat exchanger using enhanced titanium tubes and optimization of tube geometry for specific conditions.

A gas engine heat pump, is the type of compression heat pump which is driven by motive power from the gas engine. To improve the performance of the gas engine heat pump greatly, it is necessary to add the heat pump driven by the waste heat from the gas engine. Therefore, in this paper a new hybrid heat pump in which the waste heat driven heat pump is combined with the compression heat pump is suggested, and a super efficient hybrid air conditioning system using this heat pump with gas engine is constructed. The performance of this hybrid heat pump is analyzed by the simulation. Then, some control techniques to drive this hybrid air conditioning system are introduced. The working-fluids are ammonia and water. As a result, it was found that this new hybrid air-conditioning system can realize extremely efficient drive primary energy ratio is about 2.4. And the control system in which hot water flow rate and solution flow rate, and rotational frequency are manipulated simultaneously can realize efficient part load.

Absorption refrigerators can be driven by waste heat. In particular, the double-effect type of absorption refrigerator, which is highly efficient, is drawing a great deal of attention as a waste heat recovery system. This research examines the double-effect absorption refrigerator driven by steam, assuming waste heat from the fuel cells is applied. In the start-up of the double-effect absorption refrigerator, the solution temperature is almost equal to the temperature of the air. Due to the large temperature difference between the solution and the heat sources, the solution is overheated. In the worst case, it will be crystallized. Additionally, some solution is circulated due to the existence of a pressure difference between the heat exchangers. If the solution pump is started before an adequate pressure difference is obtained, the absorption refrigerator cannot be started normally. To investigate these problems, a simulation model is constructed. An experiment is conducted to investigate the performance of this model. As a result, the validity of this model is confirmed and the detailed start-up characteristics are clarified. (C) 2000 Scripta Technica, Heat Trans Asian Res, 29(5): 427-445, 2000.

Absorption refrigerators can be driven by waste heat. In particular, the double-effect type of absorption refrigerator, which is highly efficient, is drawing a great deal of attention as a waste heat recovery system. This research examines the double-effect absorption refrigerator driven by steam, assuming waste heat from the fuel cells is applied. In the start-up of the double-effect absorption refrigerator, the solution temperature is almost equal to the temperature of the air. Due to the large temperature difference between the solution and the heat sources, the solution is overheated. In the worst case, it will be crystallized. Additionally, some solution is circulated due to the existence of a pressure difference between the heat exchangers. If the solution pump is started before an adequate pressure difference is obtained, the absorption refrigerator cannot be started normally. To investigate these problems, a simulation model is constructed. An experiment is conducted to investigate the performance of this model. As a result, the validity of this model is confirmed and the detailed start-up characteristics are clarified. (C) 2000 Scripta Technica, Heat Trans Asian Res, 29(5): 427-445, 2000.

Absorption refrigerator driven by waste heat can realize the energy savings. But if only waste heat is used as a heat source, the surplus of the waste heat or the shortage of the cooling capacity occur due to the change of the cooling capacity or the waste heat. In these cases, it is effective to back up this refrigerator with that driven by the stable source such as motive power. But using two refrigerators costs too much. This research suggests the WMVR hybrid refrigerator which can be operated using motive power and waste heat simultaneously. For this refrigerator, the simulation model was constructed and detailed characteristics were clarified. And based on these results, the effect of the design parameters such as the solution concentration and the pressure in the MVR generator on COP was revealed.

A falling film type heat exchanger is expected as the generator for the absorption refrigerator because of its capability to improve the speed of response and to drive the absorption refrigerator with lower temperature of the waste heat sources than the pool boiling type. In the latest research, we constructed the dynamic model of the pool boiling type generator and clarified the dynamic characteristics. This research aims to build the dynamic model of the falling film type generator for investigation of its dynamic characteristics in detail. First, dynamic model of the falling film type generator considering both heat and mass transfer is constructed. Then, the validity of this model is examined with the experiment of generator element installation. As a result, the validity was confirmed by the correspondence between the simulation results and experimental data.

When an ammonia-water absorption refrigerator(called ammonia absorption refrigerator in this paper) is used for purposes such as freezing and ice accumulation requiring temperatures below 0 degrees C, it is usually operated throughout the year. In this case, operating conditions which greatly influence the characteristics of the absorption refrigerator, change very widely. According to these changes, the holdup volume of refrigerant (ammonia) or solution in the refrigerant and solution receiver, changes greatly, too. If the amount of ammonia charged in the ammonia absorption refrigerator is too small, the refrigerator cannot be operated normally and efficiently due to refrigerant vapor mixes with the refrigerant liquid flowing from the condenser to evaporator or interruption of the reflux pump. However, the ammonia charging quantity has to be as small as possible because of its toxicity.
In this study, we made a static simulation model and clarified the detailed characteristics of the ammonia absorption refrigerator by simulation. The validity of this simulation model was confirmed with the experimental data using a commercial machine. The minimum ammonia charging quantity required to operate the ammonia absorption refrigerator normally and efficiently was obtained by simulation.

Recently, the absorption refrigerator has attracted much attention because it does not use freon as the coolant and it can be driven by waste heat. The absorption refrigerator contains much solution and coolant in it. Therefore, it requires a long start-up time because of the large heat capacities of the solution and the coolant. Moreover, it is known that much more heat is necessary at start-up than in steady-state operation. If it is driven by waste hot water of e. g. a combustion gas engine, the hot water return temperature becomes low at the start-up which adversely affects the engine. The purpose of this study is to construct an analytical model of the start-up characteristics of the single-effect absorption refrigerator driven by waste hot water, which can be used as a tool for investigating the problem of the start-up. Moreover, the validity of this model is confirmed by comparing the simulation results with the experimental results.

The protection of environment is becoming a grave problem nowadays and an absorption refrigerator, which does not use fleon as a refrigerant, is acquiring a close attention. Among the absorption refrigerators, a number of ammonia-water absorption refrigerators are being used in realm such as refrigeration and ice accumulation, since this type of refrigerator can produce below zero degree products.<br>It is essential to conduct an investigation on the characteristics of ammonia-water absorption refrigerator in detail by means of computer simulation in order to realize low cost, highly efficient operation. Unfortunately, there have been number of problems in order to conduct computer simulations. Firstly, Merkel's achievements of enthalpy diagram does not give the relational equations. And secondly, although relational equation are being proposed by Ziegler, simpler equations that can be applied to computer simulation are yet to be proposed.<br>In this research, simper equations based on Ziegler's equations have been derived to make computer simulation concerning the performance of ammonia-water absorption refrigerator possible-Both results of computer simulations using simple equations and Merkel's enthalpy diagram respectively, have been compared with the actual experimental data of one staged ammonia-water absorption refrigerator. Consequently, it is clarified that the results from Ziegler's equations agree with experimental data better than those from Merkel's enthalpy diagram.

There are some types of absorption refrigerators which are driven by two different heat sources. In the last paper, the refrigerator driven by hot water and steam which were the waste heat of fuel cell was simulated. In this paper, another type of refrigerator driven by hot water and combustion gas which makes up for the shortage of hot water as the waste heat is simulated and its characteristics are clarified. Furthermore, the optimum control of this machine to use hot water effectively is suggested.

In this report, we investigate the characteristics of an absorption refrigerator driven by two different heat sources, hot water and steam, to make use of waste heat from fuel cell. This type of refrigerator consists of the cyclic combination of the single-effect absorption refrigerator and the double-effect one. For absorption refrigerators, there are many types of cycles which depend on solution circulation and generator combinations. First, the optimum cycle from the viewpoint of recovering waste heat is clarified. Then the simulation model is constructed and the static characteristics are investigated. Furthermore, the effects of low-level heat source on the total COP is clarified. There is a lower limit of temperature of the low-level heat source because the temperature becomes lower than solution temperature. Furthermore, we discuss the temperature control when low-level heat source conditions vary and the flow rate of steam is varied.

Recently, information and communications technologies (ICT)have been widely used in the air-conditioning field, and high-performance and density ICT facilities have been rapidly growing. At the same time, the heat generated per unit area of a normal data center, where the servers and routers are concentrated, in an ICT facility is an ICT facility is an extremely serious problem・ Therefore, this study aims to investigate the performance and characteristics of the server spot cooling heat transportation system adopting CO_2 as the working fluid to prevent the occurrence of hot spots and decrease the power consumed by a conventional overall air conditioning system installed at a data center with experiments and simulations. In the result, heat transfer flow rate of this system was higher in forced cycle than in natural cycle, but heat transportation performance factor was lower in forced cycle than in natural cycle.

　吸収冷凍機はコージェネレーションにおける排熱を駆動熱源として利用することが可能なことから、省エネルギーを実現できる有効な冷凍、空調機器である。排熱駆動吸収冷凍機により排熱の利用が進めば、一次エネルギーの消費に伴うCO２の排出量を削減することが可能となり、地球環境保護に対して極めて有効ということができる。ところが吸収冷凍機の駆動源として排熱だけを使用すると、冷房負荷が減少した場合には余剰な排熱が生じたり、排熱量が不足した場合には所定の冷房負荷を満足することができなくなる。このような場合には、全冷房負荷を排熱駆動の冷凍機だけで担うことなく、安定した駆動源で駆動される冷凍機でバックアップしていくことが有効となる。　そこで、本研究では、圧縮式サイクル（MVRサイクル）と排熱駆動の単効用吸収サイクルを複合することにより一台の冷凍機で排熱と動力を同時に用いて駆動可能なハイブリッド吸収冷凍機を新たに提案する。本冷凍機により排熱の変動に対して動力あるいは電力という安定した駆動源でのバックアップ運転が可能となる。このハイブリッド吸収冷凍機を採用すれば、ガスエンジンヒートポンプの大幅な効率向上、太陽エネルギーあるいはプロセス工場などで発生する排熱の有効利用による省エネルギーを実現することが可能となる。　本冷凍機を対象に、詳細な特性解析を行い、設計に関する指針を得ることを目的として検討を進めた結果、次のような結論を得た。　（１）一般的な吸収冷凍機の入力条件で、本冷凍機を設計した結果、排熱側サイクルのCOPはおよそ0.75、MVR側サイクルのCOPはおよそ4.92と極めて高い効率が得られることがわかった。　（２）MVR再生器内の圧力について検討を行った結果、MVR再生器内の圧力は、圧縮機の容積と吸収溶液の腐食性を考慮すると最適な圧力が存在することがわかった。　（３）濃度幅の増加により、動作点におけるMVR側、排熱側サイクルそれぞれのCOPは向上するが、MVR再生器出口の吸収溶液の温度が上昇するため腐食の問題を考慮することが必要となることがわかった。